An Investigation into the
Perceptions of Gender Roles amongst Adolescents in Pinetown,
INTRODUCTION
There is clearly a wider social movement in which men are taking on
“more domestic responsibility” and women are beginning to assume “ higher
public profiles.” (Segal, in Morrell, 1998: 7). This is an obvious break away
from the practice of most traditional societies in which there was a rigid
sexual division of labour on the grounds of the universal biological difference
of reproduction between men and women which was used as a basis for allotting
tasks. However, the role functions of the sexes came to be quite detached from
the differing sexual functions of men and women. What emerged was a
hierarchical, patriarchal gendered division of labour.(Oakley, 1972) According
to this definition, sex is connected with biology whereas the gender identities
of men and women in any given society are socially, psychologically,
historically and culturally determined. It is not surprising therefore that the
gender identities of men and women have been subjected to social change.
The last few decades in particular have been characterized by
progressive movements that have ensured that legislation be set in place which
grants men and women the same rights. In our country,
Humankind has travelled a long distance away from rigid patriarchy but
we need to pause and assess how far a distance we are yet to trudge. This
research is meant to constitute just such a “pause”. This study was meant to
identify the perceptions of gender roles amongst adolescents and in so doing
access a useful barometer by which we could measure the extent to which
adolescents subscribe to rigid patriarchy and sexism, the extent to which
adolescents have been liberated from the grip of rigid patriarchy and sexism;
the extent to which adolescents have embraced the non-sexist values of the new
constitution and perhaps more importantly identify what we need to do to create
a non-sexist society free of the grip of patriarchy.
RATIONALE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF PERCEPTIONS
The sources of patriarchy are undoubtedly myriad (socialization through
childrearing, schooling, the media etc), all of which shape perceptions which
in turn can influence behaviour. While behaviour is not always a function of
perceptions and attitudes; it is true that perceptions and attitudes can and do
influence behaviour. Changed mind-sets can produce changed behaviour. This is
also in keeping with the BASNEF model; propounded by Hubley (1994); which
identifies beliefs, attitudes, subjective norms and enabling factors as
determinants of behaviour changes. It is being posited that perceptions shape
behaviour, although perceptions are not the only determinants of
behaviour, and hence the sexism and patriarchy evident in society are
perhaps traceable to patriarchal perceptions. There are countless examples
whereby the “systems” of law, religion and tradition have been changed because
of a change in perceptions and attitudes. (Underwood, 1991) Herein lies the
importance of identifying perceptions.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study is located in Pinetown, KwaZulu Natal and comprised a sample
of 130 respondents: 65 boys and 65 girls. A hybrid form of sampling that
included convenience sampling and purposive random sampling was used.The sample
was drawn from 5 secondary schools in the Pinetown district and the grade 11
learners in each school, aged 16-18, constituted the population or universum
for the study. The sampling of the schools; while dictated by convenience; was
also accompanied by a degree of purposiveness since the population provided by
the schools earmarked for study embraced African, Indian, Coloured and White
children from high income as well as African, Indian, Coloured and White
children from low income homes- this being deemed a representative sample in an
urban area in South Africa. Since non-probable sampling was used to identify
the schools for study, the purpose of the research was not so much to make
generalized findings about the population being sampled as it was to obtain
insights, ideas and critical appraisals about the subject being studied. The
study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods.A questionnaire
comprising open-ended and closed-ended questions was used. Closed –ended
questions proved to be useful in identifying stereotypical perceptions with
ease.The use of open-ended questions, many of which were based on hypothetical
scenarios and case studies, were deemed essential since the research dealt with
subjective experiences and social meanings. This qualitative form of cultural
analysis enabled the researcher to “know the internal dynamics of the situation
as experienced by the participants.”(Willis,1983:176) thereby providing
valuable insight into the boys’ and girls’ perceptions. Data extracted from the
study were both quantified and analysed qualitatively.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
It bears
mentioning that the research was a comprehensive probe of numerous tasks and
role
functions, much
of which cannot be discussed in this paper because of space constraints. Hence,
reference will
be made to selected data so as to illustrate some of the pertinent findings of
the
research.
Cooking and Cleaning
the House
Most of the male respondents (80%) and most of the female respondents
(80%) indicated that cooking and cleaning the house which is a traditional duty
of women, should be shared by both men and women. 20% of the male and female respondents
indicated that these tasks should be the primary responsibility of women. None
of the respondents indicated that cooking and cleaning the house should be the
primary responsibility of the man. However, 90% of the male respondents and 90%
of the female respondents indicated that the job of a chef is ideally suited
for males – this being indicative of the belief that men are not so suited for
unpaid tasks such as cooking at home; while cooking outside the home for
remuneration is best suited for men. It is clear that most of the respondents
have broken away from the notion that cooking in the home is exclusively the
job of the female but vestiges of the perception that the kitchen is the place
for the woman but never the man are obviously still present. This was also
borne out in the perception of 90% of the
respondents that the job of a home executive is more suited for women
rather than men – a perception that is clearly a product of the traditional
gendered division of labour which has resulted in the feminization of the
nurturant roles associated with home and hearth. There is an obvious shift from
the perception that certain household chores such as cleaning the house and
cooking be reserved exclusively for women to the dominant perception that these
tasks should be shared by both men and women. That none of the respondents saw
these tasks as the exclusive preserve of men while many, though not most, saw
these tasks as the exclusive preserve of women is indicative of the existence
of the perception among many adolescents of the gendered division of labour
which positions women in the domestic sphere which they have designated as a
dominant though not exclusively feminine sphere.
Caring for Children
In a similar vein, 90% of the respondents indicated that children
should be the equal responsibility of the man and the woman and 10% of the
respondents indicated that children should be the responsibility of only the
mother. None of the respondents indicated that children should be the primary
responsibility of the father. Furthermore, 85% of the boys and 85% of the girls
indicated that mothers were more suited than fathers to take care of very young
children (babies)
because babies have an “instinctive need of their mothers”; the
“mother-child bond is very strong because of pregnancy”; and “babies need
breast milk”. The view that women are suited to early childcare was resonated
in the association shared by 85% of the adolescents of a nursery school teacher
with a female. The other 15% of the male and female respondents saw crèches and
nannies as viable alternatives to maternal care in the early years of a child’s
life; suggesting that women utilize these avenues of socialized child care
instead of relinquishing or taking prolonged leave from work outside the home.
These advocates of socialized health care also subscribed to the view that men
and women are equally suitable for childcare, even in the early years of a
child’s life. Hence, the gendered division of labour with regard to child care,
particularly in the early years of a child’s life was seen by most respondents
as essentialist in nature and biologically determined.
However, with regard to the disciplining of children which is a part of
child rearing, 80% of the boys and 80% of the girls indicated that the
disciplining of children should be the responsibility of the man while only 20%
of the girls and 20% of the boys indicated that this responsibility should be
shared by both men and women. This gendered ascription of the task of
disciplining is a possible reflection of the respondents’ perception of
disciplining as one that requires firmness, authority and strength -
essentialist qualities they indicated they associated with men while they
associated women with sensitivity, flexibility and kindness – qualities
perceived as biologically determined, essentialist qualities unique to women.
Manual Labour and Technical Skills
90 % of the respondents indicated that it was the man’s responsibility
to repair the car while the other approximately 10% of the respondents
indicated that both the man and the woman should repair the car or either the
man or the woman should repair the car. None of the respondents indicated that
it was the woman’s responsibility to repair the car. It was not surprising
therefore to learn that 95% of both male and female respondents indicated that
the job of a motor mechanic was suitable for males and not females. Similarly;
the jobs of a plumber, welder, miner, carpenter and TV/ Video / Computer
technician were also deemed suitable for males and not females. Most of the
adolescents clearly share the perception that jobs that require manual labor
and technical skills are more suitable for men than women; and in fact
women are unsuitable for these jobs. It is clear that the social reality which
sees men in these occupations and the social
sexist stereotyping associated with manual and technical skills have
come to be mystified and naturalized –hence the masculinization of these tasks.
Science and Mathematics
Science and Mathematics were fields traditionally dominated by men
while the Arts and languages were fields traditionally dominated by women.
However, it was encouraging to note
that 90 % of the boys and 90% of the girls expressed the view that
mathematics and science as school subjects were equally suitable for both boys
and girls. This non-sexist perception, which is in defiance of the sexist
stereotyping of these subjects, has no doubt been shaped by social
realities: these subjects have been offered to both boys and girls in
most urban schools and national results reveal that girls are performing just
as well as boys if not outshining boys in these fields.Clearly, the masculinizing
and feminizing of certain subjects have been rejected by most boys and girls
although the gendered demarcation of these fields exists in society.
Nevertheless, this perception bodes well for the demasculinizing and
defeminizing of these fields in society at large as increasing numbers of women
enter the fields of maths, science and technology, and increasing numbers of
men feel free, if so inclined to enter the fields of the arts and literature
without having to bear the gendered stigmatized brunt of this being a preferred,
even exclusive sphere for women. Some facets of the rigid gendered division of
labour are clearly being questioned.
The Head of the House
The tendency on the part of a significant number of boys to cling to
patriarchical power, although many boys appear to have shifted from this, is
borne out in this: 60% of the boys feel that the father should be the head of
the house; while 40% of the boys feel that the father and the mother should
enjoy equal status as heads of the family. These were some of the views
expressed by the boys: “Women should not be ill-treated and taken advantage of
…she should have a say, a voice, but the man being a man should have more
say.”; How can a man let his wife donderer(undermine) him …he must
tell her what to do..she must know that he is wearing the pants in the house.”;
and “A man must be prepared to listen to suggestions from his wife - she should
have a say - but he should have more say and the final say.” None of the boys
felt that the mothers should be the heads of the families although many of them
come from female dominated homes with absentee fathers. Interestingly the
girls’ perceptions did not differ too vastly from that of the boys: 55 % of the
girls felt that the father should be the head of the family while 45% felt that
the mother and the father should be joint heads of the family. These were some
of the views expressed by the girls: “ …when the father is weak and the mother
in control … the children go out of hand.”; “…boys especially keep a straight
path when the father is in control.” and; “….the man must wear the pants in the
house; otherwise he is weak.” That none of the respondents saw the ideal
situation as one in which the woman is the head, although many of them come
from female- dominated homes with absentee fathers, is significant because it
suggests that: the boys and girls do not favour female domination in the home
as the ideal although a significant number of them favour and accept male
domination in the home as being ideal, internalized domination whereby boys
have accepted their innate superiority to girls is present amongst the boys,
internalized sexism whereby girls have accepted their innate inferiority to
boys is present amongst the girls and that the majority of the boys and girls
are more receptive to casting men rather than women in the role of leaders and
decision makers in the home. These sexist views shared by the majority of the
respondents in the sampled study were also echoed in the perception shared by
100 % of the boys and girls that the job of the president of a country is
ideally suited for a male and only a male!
Hence, power in both the domestic and public sphere has come to be
masculinized. Social realities expressive through a male hegemony of leadership
and managerial positions assume mystification and beget the myth that because
men are in leadership positions and not women; then only men are capable of
leadership roles and women are not in leadership positions because they are
incapable. Hence, the gendered division of labour is perceived as being
essentialist and biologically determined.The social forces that have shaped and
constructed these gendered realities remain invisible and concealed under the
multiple, imbricated layers of social practice, social conditioning and the
powerful, highly visible and highly audible dominant discourses of male
hegemony. Clearly social realities act as and constitute dominant discourses
that shape perceptions.
Who should go out and work? Who should be the breadwinner?
The economic empowerment of women seems to find favour with both boys
and girls who find it inconceivable for women to be restricted to the home,
although the perception that women, rather than men are more suited to be home
executives has remained largely unquestioned- 95% of the boys and 95% of the
girls having vouched for this . However, 90% of the girls felt that it was
unimportant who earns more money while just 45 % of the boys felt that it was
unimportant for men to earn more money. In other words many boys and girls felt
that it was unimportant who earns more money. Hence, many boys and girls do not
typecast men as the primary or sole breadwinners which is a clear shift from
the traditional perception. It is noteworthy however that 45% more boys than
girls felt that it was more important for a man to earn more money than a woman
in a household. Hence the changing perception that men should be primary
breadwinners has been embraced to a greater extent by girls than boys, many of
whom seem intent to cling to the traditional role of primary breadwinners,
which is probably a feature of an hegemonic masculinity that sees men wielding
more economic power than women as being synonymous with “being a real man”.
Hegemonic masculinity, a term coined by Connell is used here to refer to a
dominant expression of masculinity.The unanimous acceptance of the economic
empowerment of women is traceable to social reality, a product of a changing
economy, which sees women working outside the home; just as the perception that
women are best suited as home executives is also traceable to a social reality
which sees women working a double shift (at home and outside home) and assuming
the bulk of the responsibility of domestic chores. Hence, social realities
often constitute dominant hegemonic discourses and are powerful determinants of
perceptions, barricading the emergence and growth of alternative discourses –
the sprouting of which may arise from knowledge, ideals, desires and
predilections.
The Gendered Division of Sport
The gendered division of sport is the norm in society at large as well
as in schools. However, 45% of the girls and 45% of the boys rejected the
gendered division of sport while 50% of both sexes indicated that sport should
be played separately. Approximately 5% of both sexes indicated that whether
boys and girls should play sport together or separately depended on the nature
of the sport. The view was expressed that some sports like rugby and boxing
were more suitable for men than women because they were deemed “rough sports”
and women’s bodies were considered to be more vulnerable than men’s bodies.
These were some of the views expressed by the respondents: “..a woman’s body is
soft and she can get hurt ”; “ a woman’s breasts can get bruised and her womb
can get dislocated in rough sports ” and “ …. boys are tougher and can get
hurt less easily than girls.” Netball was deemed more suitable for
girls than boys. Soccer and athletics were deemed equally suitable for boys and
girls although they were expected to compete separately – the perception that
these codes are suitable for women is probably traceable to the
popularization of these sport as being suitable for women through,
among other things, the media.
It is clear that most boys and
girls accepted the gendered division of sport and the gendered sexist
stereotyping of certain sport codes which exist in society. The separation of
boys and girls in the sphere of sport was justified on the grounds that sport
is among other things an expression of physical strength and men are stronger
than women. Many of the respondents stated that “....boys were stronger than
girls …it would be unfair for them to compete with each other.” The economic
and social implications for the gendered division of sports were not probed
since these did not constitute the brief of the research. However, it bears
mentioning that all the respondents favored the participation of boys and girls
and, men and women in sport, expressing the view that both sexes should enjoy
equal access to sport and equality of opportunity to excel in sport. The
gendered division of sport is clearly serving to reinforce the perceived
invulnerability of men which constitutes a feature of a hegemonic masculinity
and the perceived vulnerability of women which constitutes a feature of an
emphasized femininity. Hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity, terms
coined by Connell, are used here to refer to dominant expressions of
masculinity and femininity respectively.
Leadership Roles
The majority of boys and girls have rejected the stereotype that men
are better leaders than women. However, 45% of the boys felt that men are
better leaders than women while 15% of the girls felt that men are better
leaders than women. None of the boys felt that women are better leaders than
men. This indicates that the stereotype that men are better leaders than women
is more prevalent amongst boys than girls; and most boys clearly find it
inconceivable for a woman
to be a better leader than a man. Hence, girls seem more receptive than
boys to a world which sees women in leadership positions. A hegemonic
masculinity – rooted in the traditional gendered division of labour - elevates
men as leaders privileging them over women. It is clear that many boys wish to
cling to this outcome of privilege; even as many girls seem to challenge the
hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity that jointly conspire to define
women in positions of subordination to men.
This differentiated gendered perception of the girls and boys were
resonated in their responses to the choice of a CEO: Most boys indicated that a
man was more suitable for the job of a CEO than a woman because men are more
likely to command the respect of people. These are some of the boys’ responses:
“ …workers will take advantage of a woman.”; “A man will be able to control
workers.”; “Workers will give women a hard time and productivity will go down.”.
The respondents indicated that men will better be able to control and motivate
people; and that a female CEO is likely to be undermined. Hence, the job of a
CEO and the characteristics of leading, controlling and disciplining people
associated with the job have come to be masculinized. Women are clearly seen as
being innately unfit for this job – clear evidence of the boys’ essentialist
construction of reality. While some girls shared this perception of the boys;
most girls indicated that there was a need for a female CEO to challenge a male
dominated terrain and to feminize this job with qualities such as sensitivity,
flexibility and patience – qualities they identified as those a female CEO will
bring to the job. These are some of the girls’ responses: “There are hardly any
female CEOS … if a woman gets this job; then people will realize that woman too
can do these responsible jobs.”; “ workers need sympathy … not harshness....a
woman is more patient and caring.”. It is clear that the girls are more
receptive to new constructions of social reality – constructions that will see
women empowered in exclusive masculine terrains. If most girls can conceive of
women as good leaders, it bodes well for a society which is presently dominated
by male leaders in all spheres of life.
However, both boys and girls
tend to perceive women in subordinate rather than in powerful, leadership
positions. The converse holds true for their perceptions of men. The boys’ and
girls’ sexist categorizations of powerful, leading roles such as farmer,
principal, manager need to be compared with their categorizations of jobs such
as farm worker, teacher and bank clerk. 95% of the boys and girls cast women in
the subordinate positions and men in the powerful, leadership positions. The
stereotype that women are not as suitable as men for leadership roles is still
present! The perceptions of the girls expressed in their responses to the
hypothetical scenario, which formed part of the qualitative component of the
questionnaire, concerning choice of CEO proved to be
inconsistent and contradictory with their categorizations of
occupations. This demonstrates that the girls are victims of conditioning to
social realities which sees men in leadership positions and women in
subordinate position – hence their categorizations were in keeping with social
realities and the status quo; although they have the knowledge to perceive that
women can acquit themselves competently as leaders as borne out in their
responses to the hypothetical scenario on the choice of CEO – their non-sexist
responses here were in keeping with their idealistic vision – a vision that could
find easy expression in a hypothetical situation. Social realities tend to
mystify constructivist gendered practices as being biologically determined and
essentialist in nature; and can clearly have a potent effect on perceptions - a
power that outshines knowledge, gender awareness and ideals that girls may have.
Sex, Sexuality and Marriage
80 % of the respondents concurred that that either men or women could
initiate either sex and marriage, that sex should be negotiated in a marriage,
that marriage and parenthood are not crucial to the happiness and fulfillment
of all women and men. Both male and female respondents abjured a culture of
male entitlement to sex within marriage declaring that “real men do not rape”-
the unwritten rules governing access to sex in a marriage are clearly being
questioned. Male respondents however, indicated that they have a “duty to have
sex with their wives” and that they “will feel ashamed to say ‘No’ ”, this
being indicative of a masculinity that embraces sexual potency as among its
core features. Female respondents expressed their desire for heterosexual
relationships based on “mutual respect, equality and love ” as well as their
desire for motherhood. Hence, the female respondents are clearly contesting an
emphasized femininity which Connell defined as one that exists in relation to
female subordination to men and an exclusively focused orientation to the
interests and desires of men ( Connell,1987: 83) although they have not
rejected other features of an emphasized femininity: the role of women as
reproducers and nurturers.
Multiple sexual partners and promiscuity were labeled as “uncool” and
“equally unacceptable”
for both men and women by all the adolescents who indicated “ that it
was dangerous for boys and girls to sleep around……both can get HIV.” However,
both male and female respondents labeled girls who “slept around” as
“scabarashes” and “bitches” – both derogatory terms while no such derogatory
term was used to refer to boys who were labeled as “players” because it is
believed that they “play a game with girls.” The sexist linguistic
conceptualization is revelatory of the prevalence of double standards in terms
of sexual conduct for men and women, a perception that
is in clear defiance of their avowed beliefs. Language is indeed
“knowledge in an unreflected form guiding them willy-nilly towards notions that
may be…exact or with little foundation.”
(Foucalt,1970:86) Hence,
although there is an understanding towards the realization that uniform social
expectations for both men and women are desirable and logical, the boys’ and
girls’ perceptions seemed to be chained to a dominant sexist social reality,
which is supported by sexist language, wherein the light of understanding
cannot penetrate. Clearly there is a need for the interrogation of social
realities as well as an introspective critical interrogation of an obstinate
gendered mind – set on clinging to tradition and custom and which will not give
way to the perceived light of reason.
All respondents averred or implied that homosexual relationships were
“undesirable”, “unwholesome” and even “unnatural”. Respondents indicated that
they “will be ashamed” to have a relative who is gay and that the quality they
dislike most in boys was that of “being a
moffie”- a colloquial term which
refers to effeminate behaviour. Furthermore respondents indicated that gay
persons forfeited the right to parenthood “because God made man and woman to
reproduce” and that gay persons were unsuitable to be parents because a child had
a right to be exposed to male and female role models and “distinctive masculine
and distinctive feminine characteristics”. The respondents perceptions here are
not only a function of the social prejudice against homosexuals and an
overriding homophobia and heterosexism but also a function of the gendered
division of labour and the gendered characteristics of men and women which
present themselves as being distinctively masculine and distinctively feminine
as well as a reflection of the respondents subscription to the biological
determinism of the role functions performed by men and women.
THE COMMODIFICATION OF
WOMEN
Most boys (70%)
expressed the view that it is important for women to use make-up, jewellery and
to strive to look as pretty and young as possible and this is not important for
men, while most girls (75 %) indicated that a woman should not derive
confidence from her physical appearance; should be content with her physical
appearance; should strive for a healthy body, mind and soul and she should
derive confidence from her inner being. These are a representation of the views
expressed by some of the girls: “ A person should be comfortable with who she
is ”; “Who decides what is beautiful? Not so beautiful, attractive,
unattractive and ugly?”; “What happens when there are wrinkles and grey hair...
can this be stopped …should a woman feel less of a person because of this?”; “
Why is it important for a woman to look good and not a man?…he is seen as sexy
even when he is grey … ” Hence, the role function of girls as decorative
commodities and the sexism, ageism and even racism; associated with social
standards of beauty as well as its arbitrariness have been rejected by most
girls, and many but not all boys. Clearly, the emphasized femininity which emphasizes
feminine appearance and sexual desirability has become a sphere of contestation
for both boys and girls albeit in the human mind; although it continues to
regulate the perception of most boys and a significant number of girls. There
is a clear medley of femininities – each femininity an expression of women’s
distinctive responses to the world and its stimuli, its expectations, its
ideals, its unwritten and written rules and women’s distinctive responses to
the prevailing hegemonic masculinity which often nourishes an emphasized
femininity. It is clear that not all girls have subscribed in toto to an
emphasized femininity which is meant to reduce women to passive, docile
recipients of hegemonic male expectations and desires; and that they are in fact
able to perceive alternative ways of being. If the girls can act on and live
out their expressed beliefs, then a subversive, non-compliant femininity that
celebrates the essentialist characteristics of being female while abjuring many
of the constructivist characteristics of being female is in the making. The
perceptions are indicative of these visions of femininity being definitely
present in the human mind.
SEX WORKERS
With regard to
the issue of prostitution and sex workers, all participants agreed that this
was an undesirable profession although boys showed greater tolerance and were
less judgemental than girls.This is a representative view of one of the female
respondents: “This is something a woman should never do…..only a loose woman
will do this …..there must be other ways of earning a living.” This is the
representative view of the male respondents: “Maybe the woman is a good woman
and she tried to get a job but couldn’t. Maybe she had a child to support...and
they would have starved if she didn’t do this.” Many boys indicated that sex
workers were functional because
in their
absence “ rape will increase ” and there will be more instances of other sexual
aberrations. The boys indicated that in the absence of sex workers “some men
may abuse young girls and even children to get their kicks.” The boys
perceptions are suggestive of a belief that some men do have unbridled sexual
desires that are innate to men and essentialist in nature and that there is a
need for society to provide outlets for these desires – a clear acknowledgement
on the part of the boys of the existence of a masculinity that embraces sexual
potency, high libido and the belief that men need sexual gratification. Although
the girls perceived the economic reasons for prostitution the profession was
unanimously condemned by them as one a woman should never resort to. While most
of the respondents raised the issue of HIV /AIDS seeing sex workers as sources as well
as victims of the scourge; none of the respondents saw the need to protect
these sex workers through any form of legislation. While most of the
respondents perceived the female sex workers as criminals; none of the
respondents perceived their male clients as criminals. These are the
representative views expressed by the respondents: “If the police don’t deal
with prostitutes; then they will be encouraging prostitution” and “Prostitutes
are bad ….they can spread HIV/AIDS ……...the police must deal with prostitutes
and punish them.” Also the gendered nature of this profession has gone
unquestioned. These findings demonstrate that most boys and girls are against
the sexual exploitation of women but lack the will, knowledge and skills to
take an informed stand so as to remove sex workers from the margins of society
to the centre; and in so doing afford them protection. The marginalized,
exploitable role function performed by female sex workers and their status as
criminals have gone largely unquestioned. The perceptions of sex work and sex
workers are revelatory of the potency of social stereotyping in mystifying
social realities and producing perceptions that are almost always consistent
with social stereotypes. Hence, oppressive naturalized social reality acts like
a regime, propped up by the despotism of stereotypes, and serves to regulate
human behaviour.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The study demonstrates that there has been an erosion of the gendered
hierarchical, patriarchical
division of labor in the domestic sphere and the public sphere. The
respondents’ responses are also
indicative of the
contestation of the perception that the home should be a site for male
sustenance, male pampering and male gratification and female servitude, female
subservience and female subordination. However, gendered stereotypes and a
gendered perception of the division of
labor still persist. Hence, while the role functions of men and women
in society are not perceived
as one that should be totally symmetrical with tasks shared equitably
and equally regardless of
sex, there is a clear erosion of an asymetrical worldview which
relegated women solely to the
domestic sphere while assigning the public sphere solely for men. The
dual roles men and women
are expected to play in both the
public and private spheres is expected to be asymmetrical with
women executing more tasks than men in the domestic sphere and men
dominating in the public
sphere with women in supportive, subordinate roles. The hold of
biological determinism has
clearly been loosened although the respondents have not totally
extricated themselves from the
regulating force of essentialism / biological determinism. Furthermore,
there appears to be a
masculinization of technical, physically demanding and leadership, authoritative
tasks/roles and a
feminization of subordinate, nurturant, domesticated roles/tasks. Another
noteworthy finding of the
study is the predominance of homophobia and heterosexism.
The gendered nature of the dual roles of men and women is reminiscent
of the yin-yang emblem: a Chinese circular emblem divided into a feminine yin
half and a masculine yang half by a curved
line with a little bit of the masculine yang in the yin half and a
little bit of the feminine yin in the yang half.
Female
domestic yin The
role of women in the public sphere
sphere
masculine public yang sphere
The
role of men in the
domestic sphere
The yin yang emblem
accurately depicts gender roles in society with women dominating in the
domestic yin sphere and men dominating in the public yang sphere. There is a
clear yanging of the yin and the yining of the yang with men and women becoming
increasingly involved in both spheres.
The author of the article
(2004)
Hence, the respondents world-view of gender roles reflects men
dominating in the public yang sphere with women playing a relatively small role
and women dominating in the domestic yin sphere with men playing a relatively
small role although the changing femininities and changing masculinities as
well as the erosion of rigid patriarchy indicate a growing presence of the yin
in the yang and a growing presence of the yang in the yin The researcher has
chosen to refer to this gendered perception of roles amongst boys and girls as
the yin-yang
world-view and the emergent world view amongst adolescents as the yanging–yin-yining-yang world-view.
Furthermore,
while boys’ and girls’ perceptions are synchronous with regard to some role
functions;
there also exists an obvious differentiation in the perceptions between boys
and girls with
regard to other
role functions with the girls’ perceptions being indicative of markedly greater
receptiveness
to the non-sexist winds of change than boys. The research also demonstrated the
potency of
social realities in shaping perceptions– a power that outshines knowledge,
gender
awareness and
ideals that the girls may have. In fact existing and lived social reality are
so
powerful in
conditioning, proselytizing and propagating the dominant discourse and
begetting
sexist
stereotypes that they find an agent for their perpetuation in most people
thereby depriving
them of their
agency to construct alternative femininities, masculinities and indeed
humanities.
Hence, the
researcher has aptly termed this as the tyrannical regime of social reality
supported by
the despotism
of stereotypes. This finding emphasizes the need for the interrogation of
social
realities in
order to change sexist perceptions. In short, the study has clearly
demonstrated that while
there is a move
away from sexist, patriarchical perceptions; vestiges of sexism and patriarchical
perceptions
still exist. And yes, the clause in subsection 3 in the Bill of Rights in the
South
African
constitution forbidding any persons from “unfairly discriminating directly or
indirectly
against anyone
on one or more grounds including ….gender,
sex …. and sexual orientation ”
remains a de jure ideal that the adolescents studied are yet to embrace fully; let alone
concretize
these ideals
into de facto action and practice.
RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
Suggestions and
recommendations will now be made to eliminate gendered sexist
patriarchical
perceptions which have come to colonize the human mind. It is clear that
if we want to
change people’s perceptions then we have to raise the level of people’s
awareness of oppressive social realities that have come to be
naturalized and essentialized. It is only through this process of
conscientization that the hold of the tyranny of social reality on human
perception and action can be broken. Diagram A below is meant to illustrate the
researcher’s concept of the nature of gendered human perception and Diagram B
is meant to
illustrate the
researcher’s understanding of how gendered perceptions can be degendered.
diagram A
human mind
social conditioning
human mind
produces
gendered
gendered world
lens view
The author of the article (2004)
Diagram B
human mind
deconditioning
human mind
p produces produces
ungendered
ungendered world
The author of
the article (2004)
Diagram A illustrates that perception is a function of social
conditioning which produces a gendered lens through which the world is
perceived. This perception; because it is filtered through a gendered lens; is
selective, biased, unwholistic and inaccurate. The solution being proposed,
which is illustrated in Diagram B is the deconditioning of the human mind which
will produce an ungendered lens, which in turn will produce an ungendered, holistic,
unbiased world- view.
Crucial to the process of deconditioning is that of the
conscientization of both boys and girls. Central to this process of
coscientization being advocated is that of Freirean praxis, advocated by the
human rights activist, educator and educationalist Paulo Freire. (Freire,2000)
Freirean
praxis entails a critical reflection of all actions – personal and
social.. Hence all gendered structures and gendered actions should be subjected
to critical scrutiny. The research has
demonstrated that there is also a clear need for the subjection of all
gendered perceptions to an introspective critical scrutiny so that the roots
and nourishing nutrients of sexism are traced in the domain of the human mind,
understood and then uprooted. It is being suggested that Freirean praxis be
accompanied by workshops in gender studies so as to empower participants with
an insight into the social, political, economic, psychological and cultural
dimensions of gender - the workshops should incorporate a dialectical discourse,
cooperative learning and a democratic approach. Workshops are deemed necessary
because critical Freirean reflection cannot take place
effectively in a vacuum, void of discovered knowledge, nothwithstanding
its commitment to the production of new knowledge. The demystification of
normative social practice and normative
social actions can take place more effectively when participants are
equipped with the knowledge to combat ignorance.The diagrams on the next page
are meant to illustrate the researcher’s understanding of how Freirean praxis
can be used to combat sexist perceptions. The degendering of perceptions
through a process of deconditioning is being proposed.
gendered sexist
perception
gendered
social gendered sexist
conditioning action
gendered social
reality
gendered sexist
perception
gendered social gendered sexist
conditioning action
Intervention program –
Freirean critical reflection –degendering of perceptions
Cycle broken
Deconditioning
Ungendered sexist perception
Ungendered action Infinite possibilities
The author of the article (2004)
Equipped with knowledge (through intervention strategies), the
participants can then
de-immerse
themselves from their social reality, into which they are so immersed that all
actions
and structures
appear to be naturalized, gain objective distance therefrom and thereafter
interrogate
their actions and social reality critically. When social reality is subjected
to
demystification,
it loses its tyrannical hold on the human mind, paving the way for the
construction of
alternate discourses and realities This can be followed by a change in
erroneous
perceptions,
the production of new knowledge and thereafter the capacity to change actions,
that is, the
capacity to act differently or effect changed action. Hence the perpetual cycle
of a
gendered world
view, gendered actions and a gendered world ceases; and a new cycle begins
paving the way
for a revised/reconstructed / ungendered world view with ungendered actions,
ungendered
social realities and infinite possibilities.