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Gender Equity in Malawian Tertiary Education and Employment : Unequal Opportunities and Violence against Women

A presentation at a SADC workshop on institutional transformation for Southern African tertiary institutions : Johannesburg, South Africa : 16-18th July 2001

by Margaret Asalele Mbilizi

Introduction

Gender-based violence and discrimination are a result of the unequal power relations between men and women. Despite remarkable efforts by the Government of Malawi, NGOs, and the international development community to uplift the status of women, experience shows that male domination is still pervasive, manifesting itself through all forms of discrimination and violence against women. This paper elaborates on gender equity issues in Malawi as they relate to tertiary education and employment opportunities for women. It discusses the prevalence of gender discrimination, sex-role stereotyping, sexual harassment, and other forms of violence that denigrates the experience of women. Further, the paper gives practical suggestions on how to improve gender equity at the University of Malawi and other tertiary institutions in Southern Africa.

Context

Malawi is a small landlocked country in Southern Africa divided into three regions (South, Centre and North) with a total of 27 districts. The country's population, according to the 1998 census, is at 9.8 million with a growth rate of 1.9 per cent and a life expectancy of 39.1 years. The low growth rate and low life expectancy are partly attributed to the HIV/AIDS pandemic which has hit the country seriously. The 1998 census further shows that 51 percent of the population is female. The majority of the people live in rural areas (86 percent) and 65 percent live below the poverty line. Malawi's economy is based on agricultural production with women providing most of the labor. Educational opportunities are limited and the proportion of women who have received a primary education is about 9 percent. Only about 5 percent of the women have completed secondary schooling and less than 1 percent have received university education. The adult literacy rate is 44.1% for women and 77.3% for men.

Participation of women in tertiary education

The University of Malawi (UNIMA) is a federal university comprising five constituent colleges with a total enrolment of about 3,500 students and a staff complement of about 550 academic and administrative members. Like many institutions of higher learning in developing countries, the University of Malawi is experiencing a distinct gender gap in enrolment and employment patterns. Presently, female students account for 25 percent of the total enrolment. This figure is relatively low compared to female enrolment in most African universities, which has exceeded 30 percent. Despite the introduction of quotas in the early 1990s, the university is not yet able to attract enough qualified female students into the various programs, particularly science related fields. For example, during the 2000 selection, only 19 percent of the applicants were female. Additionally, only 7 girls qualified for the engineering program compared to over 65 boys.

The under-representation of women in higher education is a reflection of the level of educational attainment of girls at the primary and secondary levels. With the introduction of free primary education in 1994 and other concerted efforts by government and its international development partners, the enrolment of girls has improved tremendously from about 30 percent to 50 percent by 1996. However, high drop out and low completion rates compounded by poor performance in national examinations make it impossible for the university to increase the intake of female students. Female enrolment in secondary schools is still at 39 percent and less than 20 percent of the girls who take the national examinations qualify for university entrance examinations. Under the present circumstances, expanding higher education opportunities for women will not necessarily address the problem of low demand. Instead, the focus must be on dismantling the root causes of the low demand and introducing the appropriate measures.

Participation of women in employment and leadership

In Malawi, women's access to higher education has not been followed by an equivalent increase in their participation in employment and decision-making. Although careers for women have become more acceptable to society, leadership positions are still held almost exclusively by men.

Although women form 51 percent of Malawi's population, statistics show that out of a total labor force of 4.4 million people, women account for only 1.9 million. There are fewer women in formal employment with most of them concentrated in specific professions and lower positions. This enhances their vulnerability to various forms of injustices resulting from their subordinate position and lack of power.

Women comprise about 15% of the total work force in the formal sector with most of them concentrated in teaching, nursing, secretarial and sales work (Mvula and Kakhongwa 1992). Women are also concentrated in the lower positions in the employment hierarchy. They make up only 20% of clerical workers, 22% of sales workers, 23% of service workers and less than 5 % of administrators and managers further showing that the higher the employment hierarchy, the less the women (Ministry of Women, Youth and Community Services 2000).

Very few women occupy faculty and administrative positions at the University of Malawi. Out of the 550 faculty members and administrators in the 5 constituent colleges of the University of Malawi, only about 100 are women. Additionally, 50 percent of the women are staff of the College of Nursing. This means that only about 10 percent of the faculty is female in non-traditional fields. In terms of leadership, only the College of Nursing has a female principal and 2 colleges have female vice-principals. Out of the 11 faculties, only the faculty of nursing has a female dean. The existing 52 departmental headships are dominated by men (42) and the women (10) often secure headships in traditionally female subjects. In terms of university administration, only 1 woman out of 5 men is a college registrar, and 1 woman is in top management.

In some cases, women have been specifically barred from getting into particular jobs or professions either by law or policy. An example is the now repealed Employment of Women, Children and Young Persons Act which prohibited the employment of women in underground work and at night. Until recently women were not employed in the armed forces except in ancillary services like teaching in the army schools. The church is another sector where participation of women has in certain cases been restricted. It has been argued that the church has imposed its oppression on women by maintaining a patriarchal theology which has pushed women to the periphery of church administration and meaningful participation (Phiri, 1997) However there are now some efforts to change the situation.

Most researchers contend that power and influence are the main determinants of injustice in the work place (Chirwa,1999). Therefore, women's concentration in the lower ranks of the employment hierarchy makes them victims of injustice in the work place more than their male counter parts that are evenly distributed in the employment hierarchy. Laborers, clerks and secretaries are cited as main victims in the Agricultural sectors while the commercial places have sales women till operators and sex workers as main victims. In public institutions, nurses, clerks, ward attendants, clinical officers, teachers and secretaries are mentioned as main victims.

Women suffer discrimination even before they get into employment (Makuta, 1995). Discrimination in access to employment has been practiced through job advertisements and job interviews. An advertisement that appeared recently in the Daily Times News Paper (April 2000) placed by a legal firm stated that the firm was looking for a male lawyer and female accountant. Questions which are asked to women during interviews may give them a lesser chance of getting a job as compared to their male counterparts of the same qualification. Examples of questions asked to women during interviews include the number of children, the age of the youngest child, any plans to have more children and for single young women and when they intended to get married. These questions were aimed at finding out their maternal responsibilities. Out of twenty men interviewed only one confirmed that he had been asked when he intended to marry but none were asked any questions regarding ages of the children or plans for the children (Makuta, 1995).

There is also evidence of wage discrimination. Female employees are paid less than male employees doing the same type of job (World Bank 1999). One survey showed that most female domestic workers were paid less than their male counter parts doing similar type of jobs (Kanyongolo and Makuta 2000). Another form of discrimination is in work benefits. Benefits differ in some organizations whereby female employees are not offered benefits similar to either their male counterparts or other female employees. These include provision of housing and housing allowance to single female employees only or in some cases to male employees only. A sample of conditions of service show that in certain organizations medical benefits only apply to female spouses of the employees and not male spouses. The argument that men are expected to take care of their wives and not vice versa are cited as justification for this form of discrimination. Other studies have also revealed that some female employees employed in shops, small businesses and also domestic servants have been dismissed upon their bosses discovering that they are pregnant.

Violence against Women

Violence against women in Malawi and the world over prevails in work places and public places, such as education institutions, hospitals, prisons, police cells, as well as the domestic arena. Violence takes many forms such as assault and harassment, mental and physical abuse.

In the educational institutions, research studies have shown that there is violence against female students at all levels. Violence against women changes as one goes up the educational hierarchy. For example, in primary schools, girls are subjected to bullying by boys in lower classes and this changes to sexual harassment in upper classes. Teachers who will at times give harsher punishment to girls compared to boys condone some of the harassment. Male teachers harass girls by flirting, having affairs and impregnating them. In certain rural areas, male teachers have known to send girls to do household work for them instead of attending classes and some girls have fallen pregnant in the process. In secondary schools, there is rampant harassment of girls in terms of teasing girls especially in co education schools. There have been reports of sexual abuse and pregnancies, resulting from pupil/pupil (boy), pupil/teacher relationships.

At the University of Malawi, violence against women has mostly taken the form of rape and sexual harassment. In a study conducted in 1995 at Chancellor College, a constituent college of the university, it was found that out of 300 female students, 12 percent had been raped on campus. Out of these, 49 percent were victims of date rape and 17 percent were raped by a friend or relative. The majority of the rape cases (61 percent) were not reported. In 1993, there were 11 reported cases of rape at the same college. The study further showed that 61 percent of the female students were sexually harassed with the majority being harassed outside campus (Phiri, et al, 1995).

Attempts to avail women of their legal rights have been thwarted. For example, the repeal of the dress code which gave women the freedom to determine the mode of their dress, subjected women to all kinds of harassment and assault. In addition, women are harassed and assaulted in public transport, recreation centers and market places.

At the work place, their male colleagues and bosses subject women to various forms of abuse which are perpetrated. In a study on women in government, parastatals and private organizations, it was found that semiskilled and junior ranking women are more likely to be subjected to sexual harassment that takes the form of intimidation and denial of opportunities to professional advancement including training. The limited number of women in work places makes them more vulnerable to abuse and reinforce the general view that their rightful place is in the home. Regardless of being in senior positions, women are always underrated, rebuked and looked down upon.

People in authority such as prison warders, health personnel and welfare officers also propagate violence against women. For example in Kasungu district, in 1995, a clinical officer was convicted by the magistrate court for raping a pregnant woman who had sought medical help at the hospital.

Violence against women in the home takes various forms including wife battering, girl child defilement, sexual abuse, deprivation of necessities like food and economic necessities, desertion, abusive language, wife raping and child labor. Wife battering takes the form of physical beating, sexual abuse, intimidation, and denial of basic necessities. Unfortunately, wife battering in Malawi society is culturally condoned as depicted in some traditional songs, which encourage women to persevere such violence because it is regarded as part of the normal marriage life and correctional measures for women. Some fork tales also depict women negatively and undermine their capabilities. Further more, some initiation ceremonies teach women to first and foremost suppress their feelings such as sexual desires and work to please and serve the man at the expense of their enjoyment. The media also promotes domestic violence through its programs and topical treatment of offences committed by women.

Most violence against women particularly domestic violence goes unreported. For example the issue of incest and child defilement is rarely discussed in the home for fear of scandalizing the family, yet it is a problem and it happens most of the times. There have been cases of girls falling pregnant as a result of sexual abuse by their fathers and close relatives. Similarly, female domestic servants, particularly young girls are subjected to sexual abuse by their male employers and other male members of the household, including male domestic servants.

Violence against women is a complex problem whose solutions require multiple strategies. Its total eradication would also require concerted efforts and mobilization or resources.

Improving gender equity in tertiary institutions

Factors preventing gender mainstreaming at the University of Malawi are not very different from those experienced by women at all levels of society. Various research studies have established that in African Universities, factors that interfere with women's participation in employment and decision-making include negative sociocultural attitudes, sex-role stereotyping, and conflicting roles and commitments. At the institutional level, the university prevents women academicians from full participation through prejudicial employment practices, male chauvinism, lack of political and communal support, and highly unattractive modes of remuneration (Bennaars, 1998). African universities have been accused of providing hostile environments for female academicians who find them to be “ultra-conservative, male dominated enclaves” (Namuddu, 1993). The University of Malawi has particularly discouraged gender mainstreaming by not introducing an affirmative action policy in recruitment, maintaining a promotion criteria that favors male applicants, ignoring the absence of women in decision making positions, and tolerating male domination in all aspects of collegiate life.

Experience in developing countries shows that a multifaceted approach to improving gender equity is the most effective (World Bank, 1995). For example, to correct gender discrimination at the University of Malawi requires a variety of solutions including the observance of equal opportunity laws, affirmative action and quotas, as well as gender sensitivity in educational content and processes.

The Constitution of Malawi contains directory and mandatory norms for promoting gender equity. According to the Constitution, all laws that discriminate against women are invalid and legislation to eliminate customs and practices such as sexual abuse and harassment, discrimination at work, and deprivation of property have been passed. The Malawian Constitution requires that due recognition is given to international agreements that protect the rights of women including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) adopted in 1979. CEDAW is forcible under Malawian law and therefore provides a binding basis for guaranteeing equality of opportunity between men and women.

Achieving gender equity at the University of Malawi would involve building relevant constitutional clauses in its mission statement, policies and regulations. Measures to ensure that the law protects female students and teachers need to be put in place. For example, affirmative action in the recruitment of students and staff should be established. A sexual harassment policy to create a conducive environment for teaching and learning should be adopted. Presently the university has a policy of reserving 25 percent of all places for female students. This policy needs to be carefully guarded and strategies to increase the pool of eligible female students should be implemented so that the enrolment can increase to at least 40 percent by 2005. One measure is to introduce remedial courses for girls and disadvantaged students that do not meet the entry criteria into various university programs. Another strategy would be to provide counseling and guidance support to female students at the secondary school level in order to build their confidence and self esteem. A gender coordinator placed within the central administrative office would be an important player in improving gender equity at the University of Malawi.

The introduction of undergraduate courses on gender and society is an important strategy. The attitudes of many students towards gender equity are very negative. There is need to assist them undergo a deconstruction process that will make them understand the politics of gender and societal influences on the social construction of gender.

Role modeling is an effective strategy for motivating girls to aspire for higher educational attainment. There is need to increase the number of female faculty members who should conduct outreach activities in secondary schools. To improve the participation of women in management and policy making, the university needs to improve analytical and financial skills of female administrators. The establishment of an Association of University women with affiliation to similar international organizations would provide a support system to female staff members who would benefit from the interaction with each other in a safe space, and expose them to publishing and fundraising opportunities available for their professional growth.

Strategies for enhancing gender equity at the University of Malawi are listed below:

Strategies to Enhance Gender Equity at UNIMA For Students
 For Faculty and Administrators

In conclusion, efforts directed at sorely changing the social institutions that perpetuate gender inequality – such as quotas and affirmative action- cannot have far reaching effects if cultural language and imagery continues to portray a relatively devalued view of women. Similarly, consciousness rising alone cannot be successful unless the institutional base of the society is changed to support and reinforce the changed cultural views of women. Strategies to improve gender equity must include efforts to dismantle the institutional basis of gender discrimination but also attempt to change people's attitudes and perceptions about women's role in society.

References

Chirwa, W. et. Al. (1999). Violence and Social Injustice Against Women in the Work Place. DCHR/HRRC, Malawi.
Kanyongolo, N. & Makuta, E. (2000). Employment & Human Rights: Base Line Study. Zomba.
Kanyuka, R. (1991) Rape and Sexual Child Abuse. A Paper Presented at Trainers of Trainers Workshop for Parent Education. Regional Community Development Training Center, Blantyre. March 5-15th.
Makuta, E. (1995).
Mbilizi, M., Kanyongolo, N. & Zimpita, P. (2000) Situation Analysis of Children and Women in Malawi: Final Report. UNICEF
Mbilizi, M. A (1997). Gender Socialization In Education: Accommodation and Resistance By Girls in Malawian School. Ph.D. Dissertation. Indiana University, Bloomington. USA.
Mvula, M. & Kankhongwa, P. (1997). Beyond Inequalities: Women in Malawi. SARDC/UNIMA Study, Malawi.
Phiri, I., Semu, L., Nankhuni, F. & Madise, N. (1995). Violence Against Women in Educational Institutions: The Case of Sexual Harassment and Rape on Chancellor College Campus. Center for Social Research, University of Malawi. Zomba.