GWS - Feminist Knowledge - Identities, Culture & Religion

Feminist Knowledge | Identities, Culture & Religion

Looking Back, Moving Forward: an Appraisal of a Black African Feminist
by Mfusi Hoza*

Abstract

The paper presents a critical evaluation of a selected isiXhosa South African poem originally published in a vernacular newspaper in 1902. The poem is assumed to have been written by a woman struggling to rise above the gendered construction of the society of her time. She does this through satire and realism. Whilst satirising the patriarchal society's stereotyping of women on the one hand she articulates an alternate worldview as experienced and aspired to by women on the other. The poem focuses on the institution of marriage, exposing as myth the belief that the destiny of women is against all odds in marriage. It will be argued that one hundred years later in the 21st century, and despite South Africa's progressive developments and model democratic constitution, the gendered construction of our society continues to hamper women's development and feed on modern stereotypes. Taking a cue from the poet, the objective is to contribute to a paradigm shift from women as victims to women as empowered citizens unequivocally articulating their worldview.

Uburharha (Humour) - Translated by Mfusi Hoza

Umbuzo wentombi endala! An old woman's question!

Kutheni na ndingafilishwa nje? Why is it that no one woos me?

Kodwa mama khawundixelele, But mama please tell me,
Mhlawumbi wen' unganofifi, Perhaps you may have an idea,
Eli lishwa lelani na? Why this bad luck?
Andifilishwa ngani na? Why is it that no one woos me?
Phofu ndimhle ebusweni, After all I am pretty,
Ngesibili ndiyanconywa, My figure being admired,
Ndisukile egadeni, I am tall after all,
Andifilishwa ngani na? Why is it that no one woos me.

Noko nam andikudeli, In fact I do not undermine your efforts,
Owakh' umzam' uwenzile, You have done you part,
Uyathetha nabafana, You have pleaded with young men,
Ubameme ubatende, You have invited and entertained them,
Thina sidlambadlambeke, Whilst we aimlessly run around,
Ephala nasegadini, Digging in the garden,
Kanti noko ezi ntwana, Alas these young men,
Akukho id' indigane. Still refuse to marry me.

Ndisikhuthali ngemvela, I'm diligent by nature,
Ngexesha lokuhlakula During hoeing period
Andiliv' ilanga lomnga, I never even feel the scorching December sun,
Kanti ndiyil' ehlathini, And I have been also to the forest,
Ngeenyanda ndisavelele; And my bundle of firewood is above average;
Ndize ndisinde nekhitshi, And then polished the kitchen with cowdung,
NgoMgqibelo emakhaya, On Saturday at home,
Kodwa bethu khanixele? Can you please tell me?

Ndithi xa sendikwaMlungu, Even when I am at my white boss' place,
Sendipheka inqudenqu, Cooking sophisticated food,
Sendigwex' inyhobanyhoba, Mixing sophisticated food,
Kwanoozimbonda ndimunye, Even those niceties,
Atsh' uBhas' akhoth' iphini, My boss would lick the stirring stick,
Umisis' aphal' intshela, And the Mrs scraps the pot for more,
Intsaph' izinqunq' iminwe, And children lick their fingers to pieces,
Kodwa noko andicholwa. But strangely no one notices me.

Ndiba nganxib' isatini, I even dress up in satin,
De ndihombe ngesilika, Or dress up to kill in silk,
Ndiba kubetha ngeentshiyi, Play with my eyebrows,
Ndibe kudlalis' intamo, Or sensuously caress my neck,
Ndincokol' ezamaphepha, Start a conversation about the newspapers,
Imvo and Izwi Labantsundu, Imvo and Izwi Labantsundu
Suke zinge zithethene, But they all appear to have ganged up against me
Iidyongwana zasemzini. Those young men from different backgrounds.

Kokwethu kuhamb' ikhaba, My home is frequented by young men,
Izityutyu neengcungela, Gentlemen and intellectuals,
Titshala nabafundisi, Teachers and clergymen,
Onk' amanen' aphambili, All gentlemen of no description,
Ndiwe ngapha ndiwe ngapha, I try this and try that,
Ndilindel' int' emva koko, And wait for results thereafter,
Suk' amehl' ad' abe bomvu, But wait until my eyes get red,
Andifilishwa ngani na? Why is it that no one woos me?

Ndinexhala ngemfanelo, I'm concerned about expectations,
Kuba bethu sebethuma Because some have children on errands,
Nabangezi namva kwam, Even those who do not come after me,
Ngisathethi ngoontanga, Not to mention those of my age,
Sendimashumi mathathu Already I'm thirty
Eminyaka ubudala years of age
Sendicela nezihlobo I've resorted to begging relatives
Ezingandihlolelayo. to look around for me.

Ndikhe ndathi ndiyacholwa, Once I thought I was lucky,
Ngomtshato kaSis' Notyala, During sister Notyala's wedding ceremony,
Zath' iintwana zangcungaza, Where some men showed some interest in me,
Zaman' ukwayama-yama, And time and again bumped against me,
De zimbi zaphukaneka, And some even proposed,
Suke kamva yaluyaba; But alas didn't develop into anything;
Khawundihlebele bethu, Please advise me,
Andifilishwa ngani na? Why is it that no one woos me?

Iincwadan' ezindizayo, Airmail letters I receive,
Zamanene aphambili, from progressive gentlemen,
"Miss Nantsi ndiyakufuna," 'Miss So and So I need you,"
"Dear So-and-so ndikuthandile," "Dear So and So I have fallen for you,"
kanti zithetha ngogaqo. Only to learn that all this is about sex.
Xoka ke! Ndigung' uJubhulu!! No joke! I swear by Jubhulu!!
Ngelo cala bayazika! When it comes to that they don't succeed!
Inye mn' int' endiyibuzayo. Only one question I ask.

Ndinekratshi ndiyazidla, I am confident and I respect myself,
Ngesimilo nangobawo, and my father in relation to morals,
Nangoburhamentekazi, Even by virtue of my church membership,
Ndisihombo sakowethu, I'm the pride of my family,
Nesebandla endikulo, And that of my denomination,
Ndixolel' ukwaluphala, I would rather grow old,
Ndibe msulw' esimilweni. But remain morally pure.
Zezifunde eziza mva. So my younger sisters can learn from it.

Introduction

The paper intends to critically evaluate a selected isiXhosa poem titled "Uburharha" (Humour), which is assumed to have been written by a Xhosa African woman in the Eastern Cape. It aims to assess and evaluate her contribution to laying foundations for a black African feminist consciousness. This assumption is based on the analysis of the structure and message of the poem in its focus on a particular issue of patriarchy and the manner in which it successfully strives to problematise this. The poem is a landmark in isiXhosa feminist literature. Her writing presents a seminal contribution to the struggle for gender equality both in its focus and strategy.

The poem originally appeared in 1902 in Imvo ZabaNtsundu, a vernacular newspaper in the Eastern Cape without a name for the writer. The omission of the writer's name from the poem is itself a comment on the status of women at the time. It was then, thankfully, extracted from the newspaper to an anthology of poems published by Mtuze et al. in 1983, and appears in its current form. However, one wonders whether the poem had a different title in its original form, as there is no direct correspondence between the current title and theme. The paper will focus specifically on the thematic approach of the poem by unpacking both the linguistic and literary devices used by the poet in articulating the meaning thereof. We will strive to show, at least thematically if not linguistically, an inferred connection between the title and the rest of the poem.

The poem strives to show, and successfully in our view, how black women's subordination is constructed and maintained through the traditional African marriage institution, which is pro-male. The poet offers an inspiring challenge to this traditional institution, widely regarded as one of the most important rites of passage in her society, particularly with regard to women. It will be pointed out that 100 years later not much has changed with regard to the perception of the role of women, particularly in the black society and more so rural society. With reference to the African marriage institution we have regrettably experienced developments of such static nature that the issues the poem raises are still demanding our focus and redress.

Thus, the paper seeks to show the extent to which "ideologies harden and sustain themselves as real presences in the (African) world". (Belsey C & Moore J: 1980,77) With this highlight and analysis the paper aims to contribute to a necessary paradigm shift from a perceived reality of a woman as a victim to a woman as an empowered citizen unequivocally articulating her worldview in a free society (Kadalie:1995). It is fascinating to learn that way back in the 19th century Eastern Cape African women were already engaged in self-emancipatory struggle and discourse. This gives an indication that African women have long been aware of and discontented with their societies' gender imbalances. Their home-grown feminist consciousness led them to the contestation of accepted norms and practices in their communities.

Meaning

The poem commences by posing a rhetorical question: "Kutheni na ndingafilishwa nje?" (Why is it that no one woos me?) Next it discusses traditional stereotyping of women in terms of conditions and prerequisites for marriage. It goes on to mention all the traditional attributes that a woman should possess to attract a man to marry her. These include things like being beautiful, slim and tall. The next paragraph moves beyond physical attributes to the realm of chores and labour. It mentions roles of hard labour such as hoeing, fetching wood from the forest and drawing water, of course most suitably if a women is to make a success of her marriage! The next focus is on the behaviour and conduct, i.e. about how a woman should dress up to impress men, pay attention to her walks and posture, which should aim at "inviting" men.

The author is worried and uneasy at the fact that she is getting old, i.e. reaching 30 years of age, which may rule her out of the possibility of being married at all. The uneasiness is about the prospects of remaining a spinster all her life and thus without a recognised "status" in her society. In response to this worrying situation the woman then engages in trickery to solicit men's attention through desperate measures, such as initiating conversations on areas of interests with men, like discussing newspapers.

Some of the trickery seems to pay off because there are regular male visits to her home, even prominent men like teachers and even ministers of religion too! But despite all her efforts this male attention is only fleeting. When the interest is sustained, like through love letters from prominent gentlemen seemingly intent on wooing her, to her surprise it often appears that she is merely the object of their lust, and their interest in her is all about meeting their sexual desires. However, she is determined not to let them succeed with her on this adventure. She respects herself, her father and her church connections far too much to allow herself to be part of this demeaning behaviour. And so she does not care whether as a result she dies an old spinster, as long as she maintains her moral sobriety for the benefit of those who come after her.

Thematic and Linguistic Analyses

Analytically the whole poem echoes a recurrent theme of a woman who has been socialised to accept and participate in the traditional marriage system whose power relations are skewed in favour of men. It also voices the "cry" and "despair" of a woman whose own destiny has not been fulfilled because she has missed the opportunity to be married, despite meeting almost all the requirements of tradition. Strategically and most importantly for our purposes, the author employs the hermeneutical tool of rhetoric as she recasts and subverts internalised notions of traditional marriage. The rhetoric becomes problematic, at least with regard to accepted traditional norms, as it ably shifts from being a cry of despair to being a weapon of ridicule. This the poet does through the use of tools of rhetoric and onomatopoeia.

The poem opens with the statement: "Umbuzo wentombi endala!" (An old woman's question!). Then there's a shift from this reporting statement to a more personal mode of representation where the poet uses the 1st person singular. This enables us to hear the writer speak in her own voice: 'Kutheni na ndingafilishwa nje?" (Why is it that no one woos me?). This sudden shift raises questions as to whether the reporting statement belongs to this poem in origin or whether it is an editorial addition. The statement fits in rather well with the title "Uburharha" (Humour) as opposed to the rest of the poem as we have already indicated. It is for this very reason that other researchers may make a mistaken assumption that the poem starts from the question rather than with the title. Through the analysis of the subject matter of the poem it can be shown that the title actually satirises its subject.

In fact we can say that the poet has used what is known as derisive humour, which is described by Mtumane (SAJAL: 2001, 436) as a kind of humour that is full of contempt. In this kind of humour, he continues, "the humorist assumes a superior position while the subject of humour becomes inferior. The humorist then arouses in the audience or reader the emotion of derision and contempt by making them laugh in that fashion… In this manner the humorist does not amuse but wounds the subject of humour." Thus the title takes a satiric look at the notion of traditional marriage discussed in the poem's body. Through the title as it were, Uburharha, as with Solomon's discussion of death in the book of Proverbs, discussion of traditional marriage is vanity, all vanity, as whatever will be will be.

Our contention is that it is through the use of satiric rhetoric and onomatopoeia to reiterate, that the author in fact succeeds in shifting the focus from a vainglorious discussion of a venerable traditional institution to an insipient subversion of the same. And therefore, the opening question "Kutheni na ndingafilishwa nje?" (Why is it that no one woos me?), is not just an ordinary question but also a rhetoric question. A rhetoric question is defined as a question, which is asked for the sake of effect or impression. The rhetoric question is very crucial to the poem because it is through its use that we unlock its whole meaning.

In the isiXhosa language the question, "Kutheni ndingafilishwa" (Why am I not wooed?), alone would suffice to give the meaning of "Why is it that no one woos?" But the poet has deliberately accompanied the interrogative adverb "Kutheni" (Why) with an interrogative suffix "na" (no English equivalent?), thus giving effect to the question. This interrogative suffix 'na" depicts the writers sense of anger, disappointment and even disillusionment. We want to argue that this interrogation is in fact aimed at the notion of the marriage, which the poem is all about. It is an interrogation that accentuates ridicule rather than desperation.

The interrogative "na" henceforth becomes repetitive at certain intervals in the poem, appearing five times, excluding the initial thematic question. It appears three time in the first stanza alone:

Eli lishwa lelani na? Why is this misfortune?
Andifilishwa ngani na? Why is it no one woos?
Andifilishwa ngani na? Why is it no one woos?

The interrogative suffix in the questions seemingly depicts disillusionment with a state of being unwed. However, it more precisely aims at ridiculing the institution of marriage that is not about anything but the exercise of power of men over women. The "na" suggests that, "…marriage is an institution created for the benefit of men and all women are placed in a position of powerlessness due to the fact that there are no viable alternatives to marriage for women." (Olaussen M: 2002, 45) This opinion is in keeping with Machel's observation that, "custom and tradition have tended … to promote men and their status and demote women in status to erect men as masters of the home, village, clan and nation." (Machel: 1984,157) This victimisation of women and inequality in the relationship between men and women is clearly depicted in the following lines where the woman is traditionally expected to slave away in the service of men. Addressing her mother the writer claims:

Owakh'umzam' uwenzile You've made your effort
Uyathetha nabafana You do talk to young men
Ubameme ubatende And invite and entertain them
Thina sidlambadlambeke Us (young women) working like slaves
Ephala nasegadini. Digging in the garden.

The term "sidlambadlambeke" conveys negative connotations of senseless acts that involve moving up and down showing off your hard work capabilities. In fact the term is more like onomatopoeia which, in this instance, dramatises the condition of women in traditional marriages. What it serves to show is that all this "sidlambadlambeke" activity is not done so as to achieve results from hard work, which according to the Protestant work ethic is wrong in itself, but rather as an act of impressing men and living up to expectations. The poet is thus disillusioned with this traditional notion that for women marriage is not possible without total humiliation and dehumanisation. More importantly, in the use of the term "sidlambadlambeke" there is a shift once more from the 1st person singular '-ndi-' to a '-si-', which actually incorporates all women. This collective thought is critical both in the traditional African philosophy and the feminist theory that what affects one woman actually affects all women.

The rhetorical question deliberately runs through the whole poem. The writer aims to instil in our minds that what she says in each stanza is in relation to the question. It is precisely this rhetoric that renders the whole poem a satire of the first order. The poem becomes a satiric recast of traditional African marriage, from a woman's perspective. This, taking Abrahams' definition of satire, is "the literary art of diminishing a subject by making it ridiculous and evoking towards it attitudes of amusement, contempt, indignation and scorn". (Abrahams: 1975,167) This particular definition aptly befits the poet's intentions, which are to ridicule the traditional notions of marriage that presents women as a commodity.

This capacity to dramatise and satirise is skilfully used by the poet as she recounts stereotyped female chores, all with the intention to ridicule these traditional expectations that are meant to inculcate submissive and servitude tendencies in women. Consider the following two verses:

Satire clearly manifests itself in situations of conflict. With the poem, this is enhanced by the deliberate use of expressions that shift from the negative stereotyping of women to those that affirm their dignity. The last verse is an indictment of the dehumanisation of women, an affirmation of self-pride and identity, and an inspirational African woman's story:

Thus while the poet satirises the extent to which African women are socialised, her approach is expertly ornamented by onomatopoeia, thereby wishing to develop in members of society generally and women particularly, the capacity to interrogate received traditional notions and packages, resist the taken-for-granteds and challenge assumptions. (Odora Hoppers:1999)

Gender Relations and Democracy

From this argument it can be said that quite against the commonly held view of nationalist feminists that patriarchal culture is a social order imposed from outside, "…the black woman is to a large extent the original feminist." (Stead: 1994:52) Writing one hundred years later, Zingisa Mtshazo picks up on the very same issues originally raised by her fellow Xhosa ancestor in 1902. In an article, "Don't push me, I'm happy single", Mtshazo decries the ideological and social contexts that are intolerant and have no place for single women. Envying men's right to decide their fate whether to marry or not, she concludes helplessly: "unfortunately for some of us (single women), this is not an option we can take - even though we might want it. I am slowly beginning to discover that there is no sorrier excuse of a human being than an unwed black woman (or so society dictates)." (Tribute, July, 2000:54f. Emphasis original)

Single black women, who by society's dictates have reached their maturity age but remain unwed, become pet-projects of their families, colleagues and society. This happens despite their educational and social status. Their life is seen as
"incomplete" without a man to marry them and save them from their "situation". The whole point of Mtshazo's essay is that, in her own words: "we (single women) were all quite happy with our rather uneventful love lives - until society kept telling us that there was something very wrong with our situation. No amount of education or social mobility could make up for the lack of a partner."
However Mtshazo like her 1902 Xhosa ancestor would rather engage in acts of resistance rather than embrace conventional ways of thinking about women. As a black woman, she defiantly states, she is happy with the (unwed) life she lives:
"I thank the Lord for His many blessings - my life, the gift of a wonderful education, the opportunity to travel, the freedom to form an opinion, a good job when so many seek any job, a healthy body and place to call home. I also take time to celebrate the greatness and grace of black women and take pride in being part of this group."
These are the things that make for a complete and fulfilled black woman's life, rather than forced wedlock.

Considering that Mtshazo is still addressing such issues even into the new democratic era, there is thus substance in Vicki Robinson's claim that nearly 10 years after the political settlement that brought a commitment from the new government to gender equality - the "non-racial, non-sexist Republic of South Africa" as promised in the Constitution - remains deeply patriarchal. (Robinson: 2003). She argues that even constitutional mechanisms like the Commission on Gender Equality, which was established by an Act of Parliament in 1996 to breathe life into this "non-sexist" commitment has been treated in large like a Cinderella organisation. "Budgetary constraints, structural weaknesses and a simplistic tendency by people to understand gender as a gynaecological issue mean that the commission is becoming another ingredient of cappuccino politics - all froth and no substance."

Turning to statistics she points out that some of the most recent reports released by Statistics South Africa prove that gender equality is still a hollow phrase. Those women who are employed tend to take up the lowest-paying jobs such as farm and domestic work. A report released by the Employment Equity Commission in 2001 shows that 87% of all top management positions in the private sector are still held by men, as are 80% of all senior management jobs. Women currently hold 37,6% of jobs in management and professional jobs combined. The commitment to address budgetary constraints prohibiting effective gender equity and the campaign which is under way to increase women's representation in Parliament to 50% are welcome efforts. Presently there is a 30% representation, which is an important step to the construction of a gender free future South African society. However in the meantime, "gender has become a bit of a joke in South Africa." Thus, while various human rights instruments prohibit state-sanctioned violence against individuals, the de facto position of many women remains largely unchanged.

This is the very point Ann Eveleth makes out in her article, "The Eroticisation of politics" (Eveleth: 2003) as she critiques the standards applied to women seeking to occupy the political space and male territory, traditionally so imagined. She decries the apparent distrust of women writers, intellectuals, activists by even the left male intellectuals as males have appropriated upon themselves the role of 'judges' of what constitute intellectual relevance. This despite the reality that, "we have possibly never before seen so many women leading so many struggles on the ground - especially struggles that push far beyond the ghettoised terrain of 'women's issues' into the heart of economic and political territory" (Ibid: 40). She argues that the women's cause needs writers who can tell the international story, write books and spread the stories of local struggles from one community to the other, country to country, and one continent to the next. We want to add that what the women's cause also needs is, to go back to Mtshazo again, a calibre of truly liberated men:
"We need them (men) to be supportive of our careers. We need them to hold us when we are sad. We need them to pick us up when we feel down. We need them to laugh with us when we are happy. We need all of these things, which basically require very little from a person other than respect and attentiveness." ("Don't push me, I'm happy single", Tribute, July, 2000:55)

"What are the implications of this eroticisation of politics for the kind of world we are all struggling to create?"(Eveleth: 2003) asks Eveleth in conclusion. The kind of world, we may add, where there's a real paradigm shift from women as victims to women as fully empowered citizens without regard to gender and sex. This is for us a pertinent question particularly in our context where our society is being ravaged by the HIV/AIDS. Although HIV/AIDS is a universal phenomenon to which no group can claim immunity the disproportionate impact thereof on African women is well documented. Gender norms have a significant influence on the course and impact of the epidemic and are frequently linked to attitudes and behaviours that contribute to risk of and vulnerability to HIV. Understanding the influence of gender relations on the ability of individuals and communities to protect themselves from HIV and effectively cope with the impact of AIDS is crucial for expanding the response to the epidemic. It is to be hoped that both women and men will continue to make important contributions to this effort.

Conclusion

The starting point for our "anonymous" poet in this regard is the dramatisation and satirisation of patriarchally perceived realities on the one hand and the assertion of women's true identity and responsibility as essential components of the imagined world on the other hand. I support the view that if future generations are to think differently about the status of women, if a renaissance of Africa is to include respect for women both in their private and public lives, African women will have to take ownership of Africa's past and become the narrators of her-story. "The younger generation has to hear stories of women heroines as much as they are told of the greatness of Kwame Nkrumah, Mwalimu Nyerere, Nelson Mandela and others." (Mlangeni: 2003). Failing this both present and future generations of Africans will continue to be incomplete without her-story.

A critical part of the effort to transform this his-tory of the under-representation of women to a fair presentation of her-story will only work if there is a shift in focus from attention on women as subjects to attention on women and men and the relations between them. It is a great idea to have the policy and structures in place, but we have to ensure their implementation and efficacy. We have to get to the nitty-gritty of addressing the power dynamics and unspoken codes between men and women so as to change the simplistic view of "gender" as a poor woman's issue. Gender is variable and context-specific, our approach will therefore have to be complex and contextual. Our poet gives us helpful hints and inspiration in this journey of discovery and representation.

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*Mfusi Hoza is a lecturer at the Dept of African Languages, University of Transkei