Gender and Law - Activism in the African Context

The Status Of Legal Feminism In Africa: Gains & Limits

It is challenging, in a way, to talk about legal feminism in Africa when the concept of “African feminism” itself is an issue of persistent contestation on the continent.   What I address myself to here are the various ways that feminists around the continent have analysed the law and the ways they have used it to pursue their struggles for gender equality and women’s human rights.   What gains have been made and what are the limitations?

Legal feminists have been at the forefront of the contemporary women’s and feminist movements in Africa.  Most of them started their engagement with feminist politics after they became aware of the numerous laws that blatantly discriminated against women.  It was clear that African men and women became subjects of the law in very different social, cultural, economic and political contexts.  They demanded gender equality before the law.  However, today African legal feminism has gone beyond those narrow demands and are now seriously challenging key concepts in Western legal jurisprudence that underlie the received law of post-independence states. Concepts such as the “neutrality of the law” and “individual rights” have been exposed as myths used by patriarchy and its structures to maintain and perpetuate male dominance on the continent. The challenge is to go even further and confront the power wielded by other social institutions that act in tandem with the law to perpetuate gender oppression.

Legal feminist activism on the continent came of age during the late 1980s when female lawyers who doubled as gender activists organized to pursue gender equality.  Prominent among such organizations and networks were the various country chapters of FIDA (the International Federation of Women Lawyers) ,1 Associations of Women Jurists (Francophone Africa), Women and the Law in Southern Africa (WLSA), Women and the Law in Eastern African (WLEA), Women and the Law in West Africa (WLWA), Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML) and Women in Law, Development for Africa (WiLDAF). In 1998 the African Women Lawyers Association (AWLA), the umbrella body of African women lawyers, was launched to strengthen networking between women lawyers in the region in their common goal to promote gender equality. It must be noted, however, that legal activism is not limited to lawyers as they are numerous non-lawyer human rights activists on the continent engaged in this field.

Inside the academy, the development of an “African feminist jurisprudence” (theory of law) is still in its nascent stages. Feminist legal academicians on the continent are especially critical of the sexism, patriarchalism, stereotypes and ethnocentricity that is part of the received law, imported with colonialism.  They also analyse the position of African women within the multiple legal systems that are a direct legacy from the continent’s colonial history.  The fact that almost all African countries adopted two or more legal systems at independence presents complex questions and contradictions for women’s rights.  The majority of countries operate under a dual system whereby statutory formal laws (based on British, French, Portuguese, Roman-Dutch legal systems) operate side-by-side with uncoded customary laws.  Others have three systems operating simultaneously: for example, Cameroon (English law, French law & custom), Guinea (French civil code, custom law and Sharia—Islamic law) and Nigeria (English law, custom and Sharia). The application of universal rights under international law further complicates the equation.

Such complexities were thrust into sharp focus with the now infamous Zimbabwean case of Magaya v. Magaya² that marked a serious setback in the advancement of women’s rights for African women as a whole.  The main issue in this 1999 case was whether a woman could inherit her father’s estate if he died without leaving a will.  The Supreme Court stunned human rights activists worldwide by denying 58-year old Venia Magaya her inheritance right, holding that the “nature of African society” dictates that women are not equal to men, especially in family relationships. Awarding the father’s estate to her half-brother, the court made reference to unwritten African cultural norms that date back centuries, which say that the head of the family is a patriarch, or a senior man, who exercises control over the property and lives of women and juniors. The 5-0 ruling equated the status of a woman to that of a “junior male” or a minor.³ This dangerously repressive precedent deliberately overlooked domestic law⁴, the constitution and international instruments that were citethe defence. The Magaya case demonstrated that the struggle for African women’s human rights confronts resilient structures and institutions of patriarchy whose primary role is to maintain the status quo.

In the process of developing “home-grown” jurisprudence, African legal feminists have drawn inspiration from the contributions of Western ideological movements such as, feminist legal theory, critical legal theory, critical race theory, Poststructural theory and Marxist theory.  Increasingly, when African legal feminists make use of theories originating in the West, attempts are made to interrogate their contexts, find differences and similarities with the local contexts and engage with the extent they can be usefully applied.  Caution must be taken to avoid uncritical superimposition of Western paradigms onto the condition of African women as this may end in disastrous results. For example, in Uganda, attempts to gain land co-ownership rights for married women were dropped when it became clear that it was not mechanical co-ownership that grassroots women needed, but effective control over the land they tilled and security of tenure. Hence, the recently amended land law carries guaranteed security of occupation of the matrimonial home for married women.

Some of the positive interventions deployed by legal feminists in Africa include the following:

• Lobbying for Gender Responsive Legislation: Legal feminists have been advocating for gender responsive legislation in all areas of the law at the national level, regional and global levels.  Most recently, on July 11, 2003, the African Union adopted the Draft Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa at the Maputo summit in Mozambique. The protocol, which will enter into force after 15 countries have signed it, is a significant milestone for African legal feminism.  The protocol is the first regional document to comprehensively address the particular rights of African women. It is the continent-specific version of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).
• Gender-based Affirmative Action: Introducing affirmative action laws and polices has been used as a legal strategy for achieving greater female representation, especially in the fields of education and politics. Examples of countries that have benefited from constitutional-based affirmative action laws include South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, Eritrea and Burkina Faso.  Such laws have not only raised the numbers and profiles of women in these respective arenas, it has also given greater voice to the concerns of gender inequality and discrimination that have been in place for centuries.
• Legal Aid and Legal Literacy: Women Lawyers/Jurists Associations all over the continent run legal aid clinics offering legal services and legal representation for indigent women.  FIDA chapters have been very effective in this field. Indeed, today “FIDA” has become a household name in many African countries, associated with a no-nonsense stance in the protection of women’s human rights.
• Women’s Rights Advocacy: Numerous initiatives to raise awareness about African women’s human rights have been launched around the continent.  This is done through a wide range of strategies including campaigns, coalitions, lobbying, posters, demonstrations, research, popular theatre, media, training, fundraisers class action cases, etc.
• Constitutional Equality Test Cases:  Legal feminist activism across the continent has involved undertaking test cases to establish new legal precedents that protect the rights of African women. The overall purpose of such action is to create a culture of judicial activism within the judiciary, the legal profession and the general public.  The cases, which are usually filed with the constitutional or supreme courts of the respective countries, often involve pertinent women’s constitutional rights such as citizenship, inheritance, and freedom of movement and expression.  In the box below is a sample of milestone decisions across the continent that have paid dividends to women in Africa.
• Research:  African legal feminism attaches a lot of importance on research, data collection and analysis as a vital tool for advocacy, policy formulation, legal reform and institutional development. The Women and the Law in Southern Africa (WLSA) research trust has been a leading institution in this regard.5  The activist legal and multi-disciplinary research findings generated by legal feminists around the continent have informed and influenced action to improve the legal status of African women.   The two areas where legal feminist research has scored results are in the various legislations against domestic violence and women’s land rights that have been passed in recent years in various countries.  The various National Gender Policies (NGPs) that have been developed on the continent owe their existence to such research work.  Unfortunately, most of these NGPs have generally proved to be very blunt instruments for women’s emancipation and there is need to expend more energy on engaging political actors at all levels to implement them.

Examples of Landmark Cases

Unity Dow (Botswana)

When Unity Dow, a Tswana legal feminist, discovered that the Citizenship Act prohibited her children from acquiring Tswana citizenship because she was married to an American citizen, she dragged government to court. Under that law children of a Mtswana woman married to a foreigner were not entitled to citizenship, while children of a man married to a foreigner were.  The Court of Appeal agreed with Unity Dow when it held that the Citizenship Act was unconstitutional, granting citizenship to her children and all those similarly placed. [Attorney General v. Unity Dow (1992) 103 ILR 128].

Sara Longwe (Zambia)

In 1992 a gender activist, Sara Longwe, won a sex discrimination case against the Lusaka Intercontinental Hotel, which had policy that prohibited women from entering its premises without the company of a man (supposedly to curb prostitution).  The High Court found that the hotel’s exclusion policy amounted to discrimination and declared it unconstitutional as it violated women’s autonomy and freedom of movement. [Longwe v. Intercontinental Hotels (1993) 4 LRC 221]

Holaria Pastory (Tanzania)

Pastory was a peasant widow who was determined to fight for her rights.  She challenged her nephew and the Haya custom that forbade her from selling customary land that her father had bequeathed her through a will.  The High Court cited the Constitution and international treaties such as CEDAW to outlaw this custom, holding that it was discriminatory as it violated women’s property rights. [Ephrahim v. Pastory and Kaizingele (1990) 87 LLR 106]

Virginia Muojekwu (Nigeria)

The Court of Appeal had to determine the legitimacy of an Igbo custom called Nrachi that   entitles a father who had no male heirs to keep one of his daughters (“idegbe”) at home to bear sons and raise them for him.  This daughter would assume the symbolic status of a son and ensured the perpetuation of her father’s lineage.  The Court found the custom to be discriminatory and in violation of the right to marry and freedom of association. [Muojekwu v. Ejikeme (2000) 5 NWLR 402]

Jean-Paul Akayesu (Rwanda)

In 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) made history when the war crimes charges in this case moved far beyond the familiar definitions of genocide in international law.  The scope and elements of genocide were thus broadened to include rape as a crime against humanity.  Rape was comprehensively defined as: “a physical invasion of a sexual nature, committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive.” Thanks to this case, for the very first time, rape was removed from the private realm to the public domain and recognized as torture. [The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu Case No. ICTR-96-4-A]

But there are some limits and constraints to legal feminism in Africa, some of which are outlined below:

• Despite the name, “legal feminism,” the majority of organizations within the African legal feminist movements take a very ‘legalistic’ stance to women’s oppression and subordinate status.  There is a tendency to lay too much emphasis on the reform of both the received and customary laws as a panacea to the woes of African women.  Reformist strategies or other “silver bullet” approaches are essentially limited in that they leave the oppressive system intact. The strategy of affirmative action, for example, focuses on sex-gender redistribution and overlooks the underlying power relations and structures that create imbalances and inequities between African men and women. There is an urgent need to develop a radical theoretical framework with the potential to radicalize reformist strategies.
• A closely related problem concerns the wide gap between legal theory and praxis. Legal feminists in the academy and the activist practitioners tend to operate in their separate cocoons.  Gender equality and women’s rights rhetoric hardly spreads beyond the legal landscape. Yet theory leads to informed activism. When legal feminist theory does not speak to gender activism and when the latter does not inform the former, the unfortunate result is a half-baked and truncated legal feminism. Social transformation can hardly be achieved under conditions of under-theorized legal praxis.
• Even where gender responsive laws are put in place there is always the enduring problem of the gap between law-on-the-books and law-in-practice. Even when all the apparent legal loopholes have been plugged, women’s lived experiences do not change much.  Not only do most people follow traditional customary practices in their day-to-day activities, but also the deficiency in implementation is still a huge problem.
• Another big challenge to legal feminism in Africa lies in the concept of cultural relativism. Politicians, cultural leaders, and mainstream scholars use “cultural relativism” to challenge gender equality by arguing against universal rights and making a case for understanding different cultures and societies on their own terms and relative to their own values and beliefs.  Such arguments are invoked to justify practices such as, female genital mutilation and female subordination within the family institution.  The false dichotomy created by the debate between universality of human rights and cultural diversity is particularly damaging to the rights of African women. Universality should mean that all human beings - in all our diversity - are entitled to the full enjoyment of all human rights.
• There is a tendency (intentional or unintentional) for legal feminists to adopt an ethos of sentimentalism and victimization. Wives, mothers and women are often depicted as ignorant, helpless, suffering victims. Moreover, we tend to invoke homogenizing and unrealistic ideas about how women should “stand up for their rights.”  When legal feminists go down to grassroots women using the language of victimization and the politics of suffering, they come out as sionary, maternalistic and even matriarchal – retrenching the definition of womanhood in subordination.
• Legal feminism often has to contend with the reactionary backlash of legislative reforms. One particular area that has suffered severe backlash in Africa are the various affirmative action policies.  The decade old policies are experiencing a violent backlash from cultural patriarchs that are everywhere calling for their scrapping from the continent.

The (De)Link Between Legal Feminism & Legal Education

Introduction: A Historical Overview

The imprints of women and gender studies are beginning to place their markings on the conceptual and empirical landscape of the social sciences in Africa.  However, feminist legal studies, is yet to dent the rigid, traditional ways of teaching law on the continent. This is partly on account of the relatively fewer numbers of female faculty members found in African law schools, but it also has a lot to do with the orthodox wrapping of legal concepts and norms in allegedly “objective,” “gender neutral” and “universalist” trappings.  Hence, there is a strong resistance within law to feminist analysis.  Law is paraded as a value-neutral tool that applies universally to all individuals irrespective of social and other differences (e.g., gender, class and race). The question is often posed in all seriousness: “What has feminism got to do with the law?”

Teaching of the law in Africa has had a long and chequered history. Colonial history was the determining factor in what system was adopted by which country.  Law schools generally follow either of two Western legal traditions or a mixture of the two. Former British colonies adopted the Common Law tradition while former French, Portuguese, German and Dutch colonies follow the Civil Law tradition with its roots in continental Europe. Countries like South Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Botswana, Namibia and Swaziland have mixed legal systems.⁶ Some of the North African countries such as Egypt adopted a mix of Occidental and Sharia legal systems. The difference between the various traditions and systems basically lies in the legal style and technique. However, despite the historical differences between common law and civil law,⁷ the patriarchal fiction of “gender-neutrality of the law” runs across both systems.

Furthermore, irrespective of the legal tradition, men historically dominated legal training and women were virtually absent in the teaching and practising of law. In Uganda, for example, the committee set up by government in the mid-1960s to study and make recommendations for introducing legal education in the country never envisioned female students. When, in its 1969 report, the committee stated the function of University legal education as: “to produce men with an understanding of the role of law and society, and a deep and thorough grounding in legal principles (emphasis added),” they were referring to the literal meaning of the term ‘men’^.8

Thus, decades into post-independence legal education on the continent, not only is the structure of the law extremely sexist, but the law teacher and the law student were exclusively male.  Today, the position has only slightly changed in most countries.  Academia in Africa has traditionally been led and controlled by men.  The struggle for gender-equality, women-sensitive agendas and affirmative action in hiring, promotion and retention of female academics continues to meet a great deal of resistance from both within and outside academic life (Tamale & Oloka-Onyango (2000), Mbilinyi & Mbughuni 1991).

The Evolution of Teaching Gender in Legal Education

A commonality that most African countries share is the dual/plural character of our legal systems and structures.  Part of the legacy that we inherited from our colonial histories meant that parallel systems of law (e.g., received written law, customary law, religious law) would operate in tandem.  But in most cases, the imported or received law from the colonizing countries took precedence whenever there were inconsistencies with other systems of law.

When formal legal education was first introduced on the continent, the main purpose was to produce narrow legal technicians who could work as legal practitioners in law firms, business and government departments.  Thus the training of such lawyers did not go beyond the black and white letter of the law and its applicability.  Soon afterwards the need was felt in developing countries to train lawyers with a broader outlook, those who could foster national development through law.  Thus the ideology of law-in-development (LID) was introduced to many law schools on the continent in the late 1960s and early 1970s.  Scholars and academics from the USA were central to the evolution of the law-in-development movement on the continent (Mabirizi 1986).  It was part of the American attempt to broaden their sphere of influence, curb the spread of communism and penetrate the African market.  American LID missionaries flocked to law schools all over the continent, while hundreds of young African male scholars were sent to the US to train under American scholarships.

The LID analytical model introduced to Law Schools in developing countries was fatally flawed from the onset.  Very similar to the story of Women in Development (WID) programmes that were to follow almost a decade later, LID programmes simply sought to pursue the “modernization” paradigm without seriously addressing the underlying structural factors that were responsible for underdevelopment.  It certainly did not analyse law as a means of social control or a tool for maintaining patriarchy.  The law that was taught was steeped in the positivistic paradigm and perceived as a value-neutral tool that could be used to effect development, and to remove poverty and oppression.  Certainly, gender did not feature anywhere in this paradigm.

At the height of the cold war in the late 1970s and early 1980s, some faculty members in law schools across the continent started to seriously challenge the LID approach.  Most of these were either trained in Eastern bloc universities or those like the University of Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania where Socialism had a stronghold.  They attempted to analyse the law using the Marxist method of Political Economy.  Unlike LID scholars who saw history as only relevant to law in its descriptive form, these scholars taught law as an integral part of its socio-economic history, revealing the actual roles of various legal concepts in the social order.  Indeed, this gave birth to a number of inter-faculty and intra-faculty rifts between and amongst two schools of thought on the continent.  The emphasis, however, for these LID critics was on the class-based character of the law, neglecting other power structures such as gender.

Even when legal curricula broadened with the introduction of various “Law-and-“ courses, gender remained alien to most African law schools.  But African feminist jurisprudence was an offshoot of Marxist legal scholarship within the legal academy.  Hence, from the early 1990s, the gendered character of the law became part of the discourse in a few law schools around the continent.  For the first time in the law lecture room, a gendered analysis of the legal norms and concepts was offered at a handful of law schools in African universities.  This coincided with the consolidation of women’s movements across the continent and the heightened strategic and political engagement of African women at all levels.  It happened against the backdrop of constitutional reforms, pressure from the international women’s movement, but most important was the growing concern with the inequitable situation of women on the continent within legal feminist circles.  Today, the number of law schools offering gender courses has grown.  A summary of the various courses currently on offer is provided in Table 1 below.  However, as stated earlier African feminist jurisprudence is yet to make its mark on legal studies generally.

Furthermore, if legal feminism is to contribute positively to social transformation in Africa, legal feminists must rethink, reassess and redefine their political strategy.  There is limited emancipatory value in legal feminism that does not attempt to ‘shake up’ oppressive and patriarchal institutions of the family, religion, sexuality, politics, etc.  Most importantly, African legal feminists should prioritize the production of indigenous feminist jurisprudence.  Certain areas of study within feminist legal studies are under-researched mainly because of the obvious deficiency of relevant theoretical frameworks.  Take the example of African women’s work.  Because the majority of women on the continent are engaged in informal and unorganized work, mainstream theories of formal work are largely irrelevant and impotent to their analysis.   Indeed, there is a lot of room for African legal feminists to develop theory.  The recent case of Amina Lawal from the state of Katsina in Nigeria (the Muslim woman who narrowly escaped death by stoning for adultery), for example, offers great potential to build theory relevant to African women’s realities in arriving at substantive citizenship and social inclusion.

Resources On Women/Gender & The Law

World Wide Web Links:

• Women in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF): Bilingual site provides useful reference (international and regional) documents relating to women’s rights in both Word and PDF versions.  - http://www.wildaf-ao.org/eng/ress_iii.htm
• Africa: Law is a University of Pennsylvania weblinks. A small site, but growing and useful. Includes the constitutions of many African nations. - http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/About_A…
• Human and Constitutional Rights, Regional Links.  With links to various organizations and link resources e.g., the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, The University of Minnesota Africa Human Rights Resource Centre, etc. - http://www.hrcr.org/regional/africa.htmlFindLaw is a site that lets you specify which country you want to search, whether you want legal information only, or non-legal too, and lets you use Boolean operators (AND, NOT, OR, etc.). It uses the “LawCrawler” engine, based on AltaVista. The icons at the top let you choose to search statutes and codes, cases, etc. - http://www.findlaw.com/12international/countries…

• Gender & Women Studies for Africa’s Transformation. Coming out of the African Gender Institute at the University of Cape Town, this website carries intellectual material by and for African feminists on a variety of topics. Includes, an E-Journal, bibliographies, review essays, policy papers, links, etc.http://www.gwsafrica.org/index.html
• Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML) is a site for an international network that provides information about for all women whose lives are shaped, conditioned and governed by laws and customs said to derive from Islam. - http://www.wluml.org/
• Selected links at the Womanist: Theory & Research (University of Georgia) website. It is representative of the wide range of information available on the web in reference to womanist issues. - http://www.uga.edu/~womanist/selectedlinks.htm
• Women in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF-West Africa). This bilingual site contains key information on women’s rights around the west African region, significant court decisions, reference women’s rights documents, links, etc. - http://www.wildaf-ao.org/eng/ress.htm
• International Women’s Rights Action Watch (IWRAW): This multilingual site carries several resources including an archive of country reports submitted to the CEDAW committee and the UN Committee on Social, Economic and Cultural Rights. - http://iwraw.igc.org/publications.htm

Films/Videos

• Neria, 1992 (Media for Development Trust – 103 minutes, Zimbabwe). Neria is about a widow’s struggle to regain her children and possessions from her in-laws; a tale of ‘modern’ law versus customary inheritance. Neria learns that law and tradition can both be on her side.
• Domestic Violence, 2001 (Govt. Communication & Information System – 24 minutes, South Africa). Sets out the procedure for victims of domestic violence in approaching the South African criminal justice system. Also contains interviews with women serving prison sentences for murdering their partners.
• Breaking Silence, 1985 (Theresa Tollini – 58 minutes, USA). On incest and other forms of sexual abuse and a justice system that fails to follow throuth with prosecution when incidents occur.
• Putting the Affirmative into Action, 1994 (Equal Opportunities Research Project, University of Cape Town – 50 minutes, South Africa). Interviews with Dr. Mamphela Ramphele on Employment equity in South Africa.
• Daasi (Slaves), 1983 (Jabeen Siddique – 45 minutes, UK). The documentary is about the social injustice and exploitation of prostitutes living in the Karmathapuri area of Bombay where over 200,000 women and girls live and work under the most demoralizing conditions.
• Rethinking Rape, 1986 (Jeanne Le Page – 26 minutes, USA). Examines why sexual violence has become such an acceptable part of society, and ‘acquaintance rape’ so commonplace.
• Diana, 1985 (Jan Dennis – 40 minutes, UK). The film recounts in depth and with considerable honesty, not so much what happened to Diana (a rape survivor) but rather the long term effects on her relationships.
• Just Because of Who We Are, 1986 (Abigail Norman – 28 minutes, USA). Focuses on a subject rarely discussed by mainstream media, i.e., violence against lesbians. Incidents of police intimidation, physical and psychological harassment, arrests and alcoholism are recalled in interviews with women – victims of abuse because they are lesbians.
• Sweet Sugar Rage, 1985 (Sistren Theatre Collective – 42 minutes, Jamaica). Examines the harsh conditions foacing female workers on a Jamaican sugar estate.

Publications

Considerable research has been conducted in the area of “Gender & the Law” around the continent. The bulk of it, however, is concentrated in the Southern Africa region and there is certainly room for further research in other regions. A glaring gap in African legal feminist research that clearly needs closing lies in the area of developing a feminist jurisprudence that speaks to the specific experiences of African women. The challenge is particularly critical at this time when Africa is trying to reposition itself in the highly unequal global political economy.

Women, Law & Policy: General

Adelman, S. and A. Paliwala (Eds.1993), Law and Crisis in the Third World, London: Hans Zell Publishers.

Armstrong, Alice and W. Ncube (Eds.1990), Women and Law in Southern Africa, Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.

Armstrong, Alice (Ed. 1987), Women and Law in Southern Africa, Harare:Zimbabwe Publishing House.

Arnfred, Signe and Hanne Petersen (Eds.) (1996), Legal Change in North/South Perspective, Roskilde (Denmark): International Development Studies, Roskilde University. Bowman, Cynthia and Akua Kuenyehia (2003), Women and Law in Sub-Saharan Africa, Accra: Sedco Publications.

Gopal, Gita and Maryam Salim (Eds.) (1999), Gender and Law: Eastern Africa Speaks, (Proceedings of the conference organized by the World Bank and the Economic Commission for Africa).

Haile, Daniel (1980), Law and the Status of Women in Ethiopia, UN:ATRCW/SDD/RES/80/03.

Kibwana, Kivutha and Lawrence Mute (Eds.)(2000), Law and the Quest for Gender Equality in Kenya, Nairobi: Claripress.

Schuter, Margaret (Ed.) (1986), Empowerment and the Law: Strategies of Third World Women, Washington DC: OEF International.

Simons H. J.(1968), African Women: Their Legal Status in South Africa, London: C. Hurst & Co.

Stewart, Julie (1991), “Women, Law and Development or a Tale of Three Families in a Changing World,” in Legal Forum, Vol. 4 No. 3. Harare: The Legal Resources Foundation.

Stewart, Julie (1990), “The Quiet Revolution,” in WLSA (Zimbabwe) (ed.), Inheritance Law, Customs and Practices in Zimbabwe, Harare: WLSA.

Stewart Julie and Alice Armstrong (Eds. 1990), The Legal Situation of Women in Southern Africa, Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.

Women the Human Rights System

Beyani, Chaloka (1994), “Toward a More Effective Guarantee of Women’s Rights in the African Human Rights System,” in Rebecca Cook (Ed.), Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Cheater, A (1990), “Investigating Women’s Legal Rights and Social Entitlements: Some Suggestions From Social Antrhopology,” in Alice

Armstrong (ed.), Perspectives on Research Methodology, Harare: WLSA

Hellum, Anne (1999), Women’s Human Rights and Legal Pluralism in Africa: Mixed Norms and Identities in Infertility Management in Zimbabwe, Harare: Mond Books.

Ilumoka, Adetoun (1994), “African Women’s Economic, Social and Cultural Rights—Toward a Relevant Theory and Practice,” in Rebecca Cook

Murray, Rachel (2002), “A Feminist Perspective on Reform of the African Human Rights System,” African Human Rights Law Journal Vol. 1(2): 205-224.

Naggita, Damali (2000), “Why Men Come Out Ahead: The Legal Regime and the Protection and Realization of Women’s Rights in Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights, Vol. 6(1): 34-61.

Oloka-Onyango, J. (2000), On the Barricades: Civil Society and the Role of Human Rights and Women’s Organisations in the Formulation of the Bill of Rights of Uganda’s 1995 Constitution, Centre for Basic Research Working Paper, Kampala: CBR

Stewart Julie and Welshman Ncube (1997), Standing at the Cross Roads: WLSA and the Rights Dilemma: Which Way Do We Go?, Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.

Women’s Access to Law

Ahikire, Josephine (2001), Gender Equity and Local Democracy in Contemporary Uganda: Addressing the Challenge of Women’s Political Effectiveness in Local Government, Centre for Basic Research Working Paper, Kampala: CBR.

Austin, R. (1987), “Access to Legal Education and the Legal Profession in Zimbabwe,” Zimbabwe Law Review Vol.5: 172-189.

Berg, N. and Aa. Gundersen (1991), “Legal Reform in Mozambique, Equality and Emancipation for Women Through Popular Justice,” in Stølen, K. A. and M. Vaa (Eds.), Genderand Change in Developing Countries, Oslo: Norwegian University Press.

Cutshall, C.R.(1991), Justice for the People, community Courts and Legal Transformation in Zimbabwe, Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.

Himonga, C. (1990), “The Legal Position of Women in Zambia: Research Methodologies and Their Application,” in A. Armstrong (ed.), Perspectives on Research Methodology, Harare: WLSA

Okumu-Wengi, Jennifer (1997), Weeding the Millet Field: Women’s Law and Grassroots Justice in Uganda, Kampala: Uganda Law Watch.

Sachs, A. and G.H. Welch (1990), Liberating the Law: Creating Popular Justice in Mozambique, London: Zed Books.

Tsanga, Shupikai Amy (2003), Taking Law to the People: Gender, Law and Community Legal Education in Zimbabwe, Harare: Weaver Press.

WLSA (Mozambique) (2000), The Justice Delivery Syste and Illusion of the Transparency, Maputo: WLSA

WLSA (Swaziland) (2000), Charting the Maze: Women in Pursuit of Justice in Swaziland, Mbabane: WLSA

WLSA (Zambia) (1999), Justice in Zambia: Myth or Reality: Women and the Administration of Justice, Lusaka: WLSA

WLSA (Zimbabwe) (2000), In the Shadow of the Law: Women and Justice Delivery, Harare: WLSA

Women & Family Law

Armstrong, Alice (1992), Struggling Over Scarce Resources: Women and Maintenance in Southern Africa, Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.

Asiimwe-Mwesige, Jackie (2002), “Universalism versus Cultural Relativism:Family Law Reform in Uganda,” Agenda Vol. 54: 75-84.

Duppa, Ockie, Kitty Malherbe, Barry Shipman & Ethel Bolani (2000), “The Case for Increased Reform of South African Family and Maternity Benefits,” Law, Democracy and Development, Vol. 4(1): 27-41.Griffiths, A. M.(1997), In the Shadow of Marriage: Gender and Justice in an African Community, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Hellum, A. (1993), “Gender and Legal Change in Zimbabwe: Childless Women and Divorce from a Socio-Cultural and Historical Perspective,” in S. Adelman and A. Paliwala (eds.), Law and Crisis in the Third World, London: Hans Zell Publishers.

Maboreke, Mary (1987), “The Love of a Mother: The Problems of Custody in Zimbabwe,” in Alice Armstrong and Welshman Ncube (eds.), Women and Law in Southern Africa, Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.

Mayambala, Esther (1996), “Changing the Terms of the Debate: Polygamy and the Rights of Women in Kenya and Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 3(2): 200-239.

Molokomme, Athaliah (n/d), The Woman’s Guide to the Law: An Outline of How the Law Affects Every Woman and her Family in Botswana, Gabarone: Ministry of Women’s Affairs Unit.

Molokomme, Athaliah (1991), Children of the Fence: Maitenance, Maintenance of Extra-Marital Children Under Law and Practice in Botswana, Leiden: African Studies Centre Research Report 1991/46.

Ncube, Welshman (1989), Family Law in Zimbabwe, Harare: Legal Resources Foundation.

Nhlapo, R.T.(1992), Marriage and Divorce in Swazi Law and Custom, Mbabane: Websters.

Paliwala, A. (1993), “Family Transformations and Family Law: Some African Developments in Financial Support on Relationship Breakdown,” in S. Adelman and A. Paliwala (eds.), Law and Crisis in the  Third World, London: Hans Zell Publishers.

Rwezaura, Bert (1995), “Parting the Long Grass: Revealing and Reconceptualising the African Family,” Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unoofical Law No. 35/1995 Rwezaura, Bert (1998), “The Proposed Abolition of de facto Unions in Tanzania: A Case of Sailing Against the Social Current,” Journal of African Law Vol. 42(2): 187-214.

Tabe, Simon (2000), “Property Adjustment After Divorce in Cameroonian Statutory Law: Rapprochement of the Civil and Common Law Systems?” African Journal of International and Comparative Law Vol.12(4): 703-717.

Tuhaise, Night (1999), “Gender Roles and Sexual Inequality: Domestic Labour and the Burden of Housewives in Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 5(2): 139-160.

Welch, G.H., F. Daningo and A. Sachs (1987), “The Bride Price: Revolution and the Liberation of Women,” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 15: 369-392.

Win, Everjoice and Lisa Veneklasen (1994), Family Laws: Customs and Practices in Zimbabwe, Harare: Statprint.

WLSA (Botswana) (1992), Maintenance in Botswana, Gabarone: WLSA

WLSA (Botswana) (1994), Women, Marriage, and Inheritance Gabarone: WLSA

WLSA (Lesotho) (1992), Maintenance in Lesotho, Maseru: WLSA

WLSA (Lesotho) (1994), Inheritance in Lesotho, Maseru: WLSA

WLSA (Swaziland) (1992), Maintenance in Swaziland, Masini: WLSA

WLSA (Swaziland) (1994), Inheritance in Swaziland, Masini: WLSA

WLSA (Zambia) (1992), Maintenance in Zambia, Lusaka: WLSA

WLSA (1994), Inheritance in Zambia, Lusaka: WLSA

WLSA (1992), Maintenance Law in Mozambique, Maputo: WLSA

WLSA (1991), Who Pays the Price? Maintenance Law in Zimbabwe, Harare: WLSA

WLSA (1992), Maintenance Law in Botswana, Gabarone: WLSA

WLSA (Zimbabwe) (1992), Maintenance in Zimbabwe, Harare: WLSA

WLSA (1997), Families And Women’s Rights In Changing Environment Gabarone: WLSA

WLSA (1997), Family Belonging For Women in Lesotho: Rights, Access to and Control Over Resources, Maseru: WLSA

WLSA (1997), Families in a Changing Environment in Mozambique Maputo: WLSA.

WLSA (1997), Changing Family in Swaziland: A Socio-Legal Status of Women in Families, Masini: WLSA

WLSA (1997), The Changing Family in Zambia, Lusaka: WLSA

WLSA (1997), Continuity and Change: The Family in Zimbabwe Harare: WLSA.

Gender, Law & Violence

Armstrong, Alice (1998), Culture and Choice: Lessons from Survivors of Gender Violence in Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe: Violence Against Women in Zimbabwe Research Project.

Artz, L. (1999), Violence Against Women in Rural Southern Cape: Exploring Access to Justice Within a Feminist Jurisprudence Framework, University of Cape Town: Institute of Criminology.

BAOBAB for Women’s Human Rights (1999), Against Violence Against Women.Lagos, Nigeria: BAOBAB for Women’s Human Rights.

Center for Women’s Global Leadership (1994), Gender Violence and Women’s Human Rights in Africa, New Brunswick: Center for Women’s Global Leadership.

Court of Women: The Permanent Arab Court to Resist Violence Against Women(1995), Justice Through the Eyes of Women: Testimonies on Violence Against Women in the Arab World, Tunis, Tunisia: El Taller, 39-95.

Green, December (1999), Gender Violence in Africa: African Women’s Response, New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Kamau-Njeri, Jean (1995), “Issues in Gender Violence: A Review of Current Research and Writing,” Southern African Feminist Review (SAFERE), Vol. 1(1): 39-56.

Musasa Project (1997), Violence Against Women in Zimbabwe: Identifying Strategies for Action, Harare: Musasa Project.

Tibatemwa-Ekirikubinza, Lillian (1999), Women’s Violent Crime in Uganda: More Sinned Against Than Sinning, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.

United Nations Economic and Social Council, Commission on Human Rights(2000), “E/CN.4/2000/68/Add.5” Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44. Addendum: Economic and Social Policy and its Impact on Violence Against Women. - http://www.unhchr.ch/uridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestF….

United Nations Economic and Social Council, Commission on Human Rights(1999), “E/CN.4/1999/68/Add.4” Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44. Addendum: Policies and Practices That Impact Women’s Reproductive Rights and Contribute To, Cause Or Constitute Violence Against Women. - http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/Test….

WLSA (Lesotho) (2002), Sexual Violence in Lesotho: The Realities of Justice for Women, Morija: WLSA

WLSA (Swaziland) (2001), Multiple Jeopardy: Domestic Violence and Women’s Search for Justice in Swaziland, Mbabane: WLSA

WLSA (Zambia) (2001), Gender Violence: The Invisible Struggle, Lusaka: WLSA

Women, Law & Development International (1998), State Responses to Domestic Violence: Current Status and Needed Improvements, Washington, District of Columbia: Women, Law & Development International.

World Health Organization (WHO) (1997), Violence Against Women: A Public Health Issue, Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

Women and the Criminal Justice System

Borday, Raygaanah and Heléne Combrinck (2002), Implementation of Bail Legislation in Sexual Assault Cases: First Research Report 2000-2002, Bellville: Community Law Centre, University of Western Cape

Combrinck, Helene (2001), “He’s Out Again”: The Role of the Prosecutor in Bail for Persons Accused of Sexual Offences of Sexual Offences,” Law, Democracy & Development, Vol. 5(1): 31-52.

Lebotse, Kabelo Kenneth (2000), “Bail and Punishment in Rape Cases: The Situation in Botswana,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 6(2): 115-129.

Tibatemwa-Ekirikubinza, L. (1997), “Multiple Partnering, Gender Relations and Violence by Women in Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 4(1): 15-40.

Women & International Law & Policy

Kois, Lisa (1996), “Article 18 of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights: A Progressive Approach to Women’s Human Rights,” East African Journal of Peace and Human Rights Vol. 3(1): 92-114.

Kuenyehia, Akua (1994), “The Impace of Structural Adjustment Programs on Women’s International Human Rights: The Example of Ghana,” in Rebecca Cook (Ed.), Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Mugwanya, George (2000), “Augmenting the Struggle for Gender Equality in Uganda: A Case for the Domestication of International Human Rights Standards,” African Journal of International and Comparative Law Vol. 12(4): 754-798.

Naggita-Musoke, D. (2001), “The Beijing Platform for Action: A Review of Progress Made by Uganda(
1995-2000),” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights, Vol. 7(2): 256-282.

Nyamu, Celestine (2000), “The International Human Rights Regime and Rural Women in Kenya,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights, Vol. 6(1): 1-33.
Oloka-Onyango J. and Sylvia Tamale (1995) “‘The Personal is Political’ or Why Women’s Rights are Indeed Human Rights: An African Perspective on International Feminism Human Rights Quarterly Vol. 17 No. 4: 692-731.

Onoria, Henry (2002), “Introduction to the African System of Human Rights and the Draft Protocol,” in Benedek Wolfgang, Esther Kisakye, Gerd Oberleitner (Eds.), Human Rights of Women, London: Zed books.

Semafumu, Rosemary (1999), “Uganda’s Reporting Obligations Under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 5(2): 175-198.

Tamale, Sylvia (2001) “Think Globally, Act Locally: Using International Treaties for Women’s Empowerment in East Africa,” Agenda No. 50: 97-104.

Gender & Constitutionalism

Agenda: A Journal About Women & Gender (1996), Special Issue on Citizenship,Issue Number 40.

Mahlunge, Yvonne (2000), “The Gender Dynamics of the Constitutional Debate in Zimbabwe,” Southern African Feminist Review (SAFERE): 67-70.

Okoye, Ada (2003), “Sharing the Citizenship of Women: A Comparative Gendered Analysis of the concept of ‘Legal Personhood’ in Africa,” http://www.gwsafrica.org/knowledge/index.html

Tuhaise Night and Edith Kibalama (2000), “Affirmative Action and the Status of Women in Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol.6(1): 98-108.

Tamale, Sylvia (2001) “Gender and Affirmative Action in Post-1995 Uganda: A New Dispensation or Business as Usual?” in Constitutionalism in Africa, edited by J. Oloka-Onyango, Fountain Publishers.

Tamale, Sylvia (1999) “Towards Legitimate Governance in Africa: The Case of Affirmative Action and Parliamentary Politics in Uganda,” in E.K. Quashigah and O.C. Okafor (Eds.), Legitimate Governance Africa, The Hague: Kluwer Law International.

Wing, Adrien (1993), Communitarianism v. Individualism: Constitutionalism in Namibia & South Africa” Wisconsin International Law Journal Vol.11: 295.

Women and Property Law

Butegwa, Florence (1994), “Using the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights to Secure Women’s Access to Land in Africa,” Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Cotula, Lorenzo (2002), Gender and Law: Women’s Rights in Agriculture, Rome: Food & Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

Ekirikubinza-Tibatemwa, L. (1995), “Property Rights, Institutional Credit and the Gender Question in Uganda,” East African Jurnal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 2(1): 68-80.

Ncube, Welshman (1987), “Underprivilege and Inequality: The Matrimonial Property Rights of Women in Zimbabwe,” in A. Armstrong and W.
Ncube (eds.), Women and Law in Southern Africa, Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.

Ncube, Welshman and Julie Stewart, et al (1997), Paradigms of Exclusion: Women’s Access to Resources in and Through Families in Zimbabwe, Harare:

Ncube, Welshman and Julie Stewart, et al (Eds., 1995), Widowhood, Inheritance Laws, Customs and practices in Southern Africa, Harare: WLSA

Rugadya Margaret and Harriet Busingye (2002), Gender Perspectives in the Land Reform Process in Uganda, Kampala: Uganda Land Alliance.

WLSA (1994), Inheritance Law in Lesotho: Maseru: WLSA

WLSA (1996), Right to Succession and Inheritance in Mozambique Maputo: WLSA|

WLSA (1994), Inheritance in Swaziland Masini: WLSA

WLSA (1994), Inheritance in Zambia Lusaka: WLSA.

WLSA (1994, 1996), Inheritance in Zimbabwe Lusaka: WLSA.
Women & Law in East Africa (WLEA) (1994), The Law of Succession in Uganda:Women, Inheritance Laws and Practices, Kampala: WLEA Publications.

Women, Conflict & Refugee Law

Graeff-Wassink, Maria (1994), ‘The militarization of women and ‘feminism’ in Libya” in Elisabetta Addis, Valeria E. Russo & Lorenza Sebesta, (Eds). Women Soldiers: Images and Realities, New York, St. Martin’s Press.

International Alert (1999), “Women, Violent Conflict and Peacebuilding: Global Perspectives,” International Conference, London, May 5-7.

Martin, Susan Forbes (1991) Refugee Women, London: Zed Books.

Nordstrom, Carolyn (1997), Girls in War Zones: Troubling Questions, Uppsala,Sweden: Life and Peace Institute.

Oloka-Onyango, J. (2000), “Gender and Conflict in Contemporary Africa: Engendering the Mechanisms for the Promotion of Human Rights and Conflict Prevention,” The African Society of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 9(1): 1-20.

Oloka-Onyango (1996), “The Plight of the Larger Half: Human Rights, Gender Violence and the Legal Status of Refugee and Internally Displaced Women in Africa, Denver Journal of International Law & Policy, Vol. 24(2/3): 349-394.

Gender, Culture & Customary Law

Bennet, T. W.((1995), Human Rights and African Customary Law, Cape Town: Juta

Bennet, T. W.(1985), Application of Customary Law in Southern Africa, Cape Town: Juta.

Chanock, M. (1985), Law, Custom and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chanock, M. (1989), “Neither Customary nor Legal: African Customary Law in an Era of Family Law Reform,” International Journal of Law and Family Vol. 3: 72-88.

Hamisu, Danpullo (2000/01), “Customary Bride-Price in Cameroon: Do Women Have a Say?” in Zimbabwe,” Southern African Feminist Review (SAFERE), Vol. 4(2)/Vol. 5(1): 65-72.

Kisakye, Esther (2002), “Women, Culture and Human Rights: Female Genital Mutilation, Polygamy and Bride Price,” in Benedek Wolfgang, Esther Kisaakye, Gerd Oberleitner (Eds.), Human Rights of Women, London: Zed Books.

Pereira, Charmaine (2001), “Culture, Gender and Constitutional Restructuring in Nigeria,” in J. Oloka-Onyango (Ed.), Constitutionalism in Africa: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.

Rahman, Anika and Nahid Toubia (Eds). (2000), Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Lawws and Policies Worldwide, London: Zed Books.

Samuel, Sharita (1999), “Women Married in Customary Law: No Longer Permanent Minors,” Agenda Vol. 40: 23-31.

Women in Islamic Law

Abou Zeid, Ola (2001), ”Equality, Discrimination and Constitutionalism in Muslim Africa,” in J. Oloka-Onyango (Ed.), Constitutionalism in Africa: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.

An-Na’im, Abdullahi (Ed. 2002), Islamic Family Law in a Changing World: A Global Resource Book, London: Zed Books Ltd.

Baffoun, Alya (1994) “Feminism and Muslim fundamentalism: the Tunisian and Algerian cases” in Valentine M. Moghadam (Ed.), Identity Politics and Women: Cultural Reassertions and Feminisms in International Perspective, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Elmadmad, Khadija (2002), “Women’s Rights in Islam,” in Benedek Wolfgang,Esther Kisaakye, Gerd Oberleitner (Eds.), Human Rights of Women, London: Zed Books.

Gender, Law & Sexuality

Amory, Deborah (1997), “’Homosexuality’ in Africa: Issues and Debates,” ISSUE: A Journal of Opinion, No. 25(1): 5-10

Baines, Erik (2003), “Body Politics and the Rwandan Crisis,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 24(3): 1-6.

Imam, Ayesha (2000), “The Muslim Religious Right (‘Fundamentalists’) and Sexuality,” in Pinar Ilkkaracan (Ed.), Women and Sexuality in Muslim Countries, Istanbul, Turkey: Women for Women’s Human Rights.

Kieh K, George and Doris Railey (1993), “Women, Sexual Harassment and Employment Opportunities in Liberia,” Liberian Studies Journal, Vol. 18(2): 189-201.

Kigongo-Bukenya, Isaac (1999), “Women and the Right to Reproductive Health Information Services in Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights Vol. 5(2): 125-138.

Machera, Mumbi (2002), “Opening a can of worms: A debate on African Female Sexuality in the Lecture Theatre,” in Signe Arnfred (Ed.), Rethinking Sexualities in Africa, Uppsala: The Nordic Africa Institute.

Mernissi, Fatima (2000), “The Muslim Concept of Active Female Sexuality,” in Pinar Ilkkaracan (Ed.), Women and Sexuality in Muslim Countries, Istanbul, Turkey: Women for Women’s Human Rights.

Parpart, Jane (1988), “Sexuality and Power in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1926-1964,” in S. Stichter and J. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class: African Women in the Home and in the Workforce, Boulder: Westview Press.

Rakgoadi, Sylvester (1998), “Sex Work: Decriminalization,” Paper delivered at the SADC Conference on Preventing Violence Against Women, (March 5-9), Johannesburg, South Africa.

Sarkin, Jeremy (1998), “Patriarchy and Discrimination in Apartheid South African Abortion Law,” Buffalo Human Rights Law Review Vol. 4: 141-184.

Shiripinda, Iris (2000), “Legislative Aspects in Relation to HIV/AIDS Prevention in Zimbabwe,” Southern African Feminist Review (SAFERE), Vol. 4(1): 37-46.

Tamale, Sylvia (2001), “How Old is Old Enough?: Defilement Law and the Age of Consent in Uganda,” East African Journal of Peace and Human Rights, Vol. 7 (1): 82-100.

Tamale, Sylvia (1992), “Rape Law& the Violation of Women in Uganda: A Critical Perspective,” Uganda Law Society Review, Vol. 1(2): 195-211.

Gender & Employment

Botswana Centre for Human Rights (1995), Rights of Domestic Workers, Gabarone: The Botswana Centre for Human Rights.

Moffat, Bernadett (n/d) Working Women’s Manual, Pretoria: Commission on Gender Equality

Feminist Legal Method

Bentzon Agnet Weis, Anne Hellum, Julie Stewart, Welsham Ncube and Torben Agersnap(1998), Pursuing Grounded Theory in Law: South-North Experiences in Developing Women’s Law, Harare: Mond Books.

Bentzon Agnet (1990), “State Law versus Local Law in the Post Colonial State: Law Data on Structures and Actors in Development Research,” in Arnfred, S. and A. W. Bentzon (Eds.) The Language of development Studies, Copenhagen: New Social Science Monographs.

Bentzon (Eds.), The Language of Development Studies, Copenhagen: New Social Science Monographs.

Kazembe, J.K.(1990), “Maintenance Law Research in Zimbabwe: Methodological Issues,” in A. Armstrong (ed.), Perspectives on Research Methodology, Harare: WLSA.

Longwe, Sarah and R. Clarke (1990), “Research Strategies for Promoting Law Reform: Lessons from Changing the Law of Inheritance in Zambia,” in A. Armstrong, (ed.), Perspectives on Research Methodology, Harare: WLSA.

Rwezaura, B. (1990), “Researching on the Law of the Family in Tanzania, Some Reflections on Method, Theory and the Limits of Law as a Tool for Social Change, “ in A. Armstrong (ed.), Perspectives on Research Methodology, Harare: WLSA.

WLSA (1997), Paving A Way Forward: A Review and Research Primer of WLSA Methodologies, Harare: WLSA.

References:

Benda-Beckmann, Franz von (1989) “Scape-Goat and Magic Charm, Law in Development Theory and Practice,” Journal of Legal Pluralism, Number 28: 129-148.

Hutchison, T.W.(1968), “Law and Development in Independent English-Speaking Sub-Saharan Africa,“ Africa and Law.

Mabirizi, Deogratius (1986), “Some Aspects of Makerere’s Legal Education in Development,” Third World Legal Studies: Teaching Law and Development, New York: INTWORLSA.

Mbilinyi, M. and P. Mbughuni (Eds.) (1991), “Education in Tanzania with a Gender Perspective,” Report Prepared for SIDA, Dar-es-Salaam.

Tamale, Sylvia and J. Oloka-Onyango (2000), “’Bitches at the Academy: Gender and Academic Freedom in Africa,” in Ebrima Sall (Ed.), Women in Academia: Gender and Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA